Context-aware speech synthesis: A human-inspired model for monitoring and adapting synthetic speech

The aim of this PhD thesis is to illustrate the development a computational model for speech synthesis, which mimics the behaviour of human speaker when they adapt their production to their communicative conditions. The PhD project was motivated by the observed differences between state-of-the- art synthesiser’s speech and human production. In particular, synthesiser outcome does not exhibit any adaptation to communicative context such as environmental disturbances, listener’s needs, or speech content meanings, as the human speech does. No evaluation is performed by standard synthesisers to check whether their production is suitable for the communication requirements. Inspired by Lindblom's Hyper and Hypo articulation theory (H&H) theory of speech production, the computational model of Hyper and Hypo articulation theory (C2H) is proposed. This novel computational model for automatic speech production is designed to monitor its outcome and to be able to control the effort involved in the synthetic speech generation. Speech transformations are based on the hypothesis that low-effort attractors for a human speech production system can be identified. Such acoustic configurations are close to minimum possible effort that a speaker can make in speech production. The interpolation/extrapolation along the key dimension of hypo/hyper-articulation can be motivated by energetic considerations of phonetic contrast. The complete reactive speech synthesis is enabled by adding a negative perception feedback loop to the speech production chain in order to constantly assess the communicative effectiveness of the proposed adaptation. The distance to the original communicative intents is the control signal that drives the speech transformations. A hidden Markov model (HMM)-based speech synthesiser along with the continuous adaptation of its statistical models is used to implement the C2H model. A standard version of the synthesis software does not allow for transformations of speech during the parameter generation. Therefore, the generation algorithm of one the most well-known speech synthesis frameworks, HMM/DNN-based speech synthesis framework (HTS), is modified. The short-time implementation of speech intelligibility index (SII), named extended speech intelligibility index (eSII), is also chosen as the main perception measure in the feedback loop to control the transformation. The effectiveness of the proposed model is tested by performing acoustic analysis, objective, and subjective evaluations. A key assessment is to measure the control of the speech clarity in noisy condition, and the similarities between the emerging modifications and human behaviour. Two objective scoring methods are used to assess the speech intelligibility of the implemented system: the speech intelligibility index (SII) and the index based upon the Dau measure (Dau). Results indicate that the intelligibility of C2H-generated speech can be continuously controlled. The effectiveness of reactive speech synthesis and of the phonetic contrast motivated transforms is confirmed by the acoustic and objective results. More precisely, in the maximum-strength hyper-articulation transformations, the improvement with respect to non-adapted speech is above 10% for all intelligibility indices and tested noise conditions

Phonetic accommodation of human interlocutors in the context of human-computer interaction

Phonetic accommodation refers to the phenomenon that interlocutors adapt their way of speaking to each other within an interaction. This can have a positive influence on the communication quality. As we increasingly use spoken language to interact with computers these days, the phenomenon of phonetic accommodation is also investigated in the context of human-computer interaction: on the one hand, to find out whether speakers adapt to a computer agent in a similar way as they do to a human interlocutor, on the other hand, to implement accommodation behavior in spoken dialog systems and explore how this affects their users. To date, the focus has been mainly on the global acoustic-prosodic level. The present work demonstrates that speakers interacting with a computer agent also identify locally anchored phonetic phenomena such as segmental allophonic variation and local prosodic features as accommodation targets and converge on them. To this end, we conducted two experiments. First, we applied the shadowing method, where the participants repeated short sentences from natural and synthetic model speakers. In the second experiment, we used the Wizard-of-Oz method, in which an intelligent spoken dialog system is simulated, to enable a dynamic exchange between the participants and a computer agent — the virtual language learning tutor Mirabella. The target language of our experiments was German. Phonetic convergence occurred in both experiments when natural voices were used as well as when synthetic voices were used as stimuli. Moreover, both native and non-native speakers of the target language converged to Mirabella. Thus, accommodation could be relevant, for example, in the context of computer-assisted language learning. Individual variation in accommodation behavior can be attributed in part to speaker-specific characteristics, one of which is assumed to be the personality structure. We included the Big Five personality traits as well as the concept of mental boundaries in the analysis of our data. Different personality traits influenced accommodation to different types of phonetic features. Mental boundaries have not been studied before in the context of phonetic accommodation. We created a validated German adaptation of a questionnaire that assesses the strength of mental boundaries. The latter can be used in future studies involving mental boundaries in native speakers of German.Bei phonetischer Akkommodation handelt es sich um das Phänomen, dass Gesprächspartner ihre Sprechweise innerhalb einer Interaktion aneinander anpassen. Dies kann die Qualität der Kommunikation positiv beeinflussen. Da wir heutzutage immer öfter mittels gesprochener Sprache mit Computern interagieren, wird das Phänomen der phonetischen Akkommodation auch im Kontext der Mensch-Computer-Interaktion untersucht: zum einen, um herauszufinden, ob sich Sprecher an einen Computeragenten in ähnlicher Weise anpassen wie an einen menschlichen Gesprächspartner, zum anderen, um das Akkommodationsverhalten in Sprachdialogsysteme zu implementieren und zu erforschen, wie dieses auf ihre Benutzer wirkt. Bislang lag der Fokus dabei hauptsächlich auf der globalen akustisch-prosodischen Ebene. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass Sprecher in Interaktion mit einem Computeragenten auch lokal verankerte phonetische Phänomene wie segmentale allophone Variation und lokale prosodische Merkmale als Akkommodationsziele identifizieren und in Bezug auf diese konvergieren. Dabei wendeten wir in einem ersten Experiment die Shadowing-Methode an, bei der die Teilnehmer kurze Sätze von natürlichen und synthetischen Modellsprechern wiederholten. In einem zweiten Experiment ermöglichten wir mit der Wizard-of-Oz-Methode, bei der ein intelligentes Sprachdialogsystem simuliert wird, einen dynamischen Austausch zwischen den Teilnehmern und einem Computeragenten — der virtuellen Sprachlerntutorin Mirabella. Die Zielsprache unserer Experimente war Deutsch. Phonetische Konvergenz trat in beiden Experimenten sowohl bei Verwendung natürlicher Stimmen als auch bei Verwendung synthetischer Stimmen als Stimuli auf. Zudem konvergierten sowohl Muttersprachler als auch Nicht-Muttersprachler der Zielsprache zu Mirabella. Somit könnte Akkommodation zum Beispiel im Kontext des computergstützten Sprachenlernens zum Tragen kommen. Individuelle Variation im Akkommodationsverhalten kann unter anderem auf sprecherspezifische Eigenschaften zurückgeführt werden. Es wird vermutet, dass zu diesen auch die Persönlichkeitsstruktur gehört. Wir bezogen die Big Five Persönlichkeitsmerkmale sowie das Konzept der mentalen Grenzen in die Analyse unserer Daten ein. Verschiedene Persönlichkeitsmerkmale beeinflussten die Akkommodation zu unterschiedlichen Typen von phonetischen Merkmalen. Die mentalen Grenzen sind im Zusammenhang mit phonetischer Akkommodation zuvor noch nicht untersucht worden. Wir erstellten eine validierte deutsche Adaptierung eines Fragebogens, der die Stärke der mentalen Grenzen erhebt. Diese kann in zukünftigen Untersuchungen mentaler Grenzen bei Muttersprachlern des Deutschen verwendet werden.Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) – Projektnummer 278805297: "Phonetische Konvergenz in der Mensch-Maschine-Kommunikation

Fast Speech in Unit Selection Speech Synthesis

Moers-Prinz D. Fast Speech in Unit Selection Speech Synthesis. Bielefeld: Universität Bielefeld; 2020.Speech synthesis is part of the everyday life of many people with severe visual disabilities. For those who are reliant on assistive speech technology the possibility to choose a fast speaking rate is reported to be essential. But also expressive speech synthesis and other spoken language interfaces may require an integration of fast speech. Architectures like formant or diphone synthesis are able to produce synthetic speech at fast speech rates, but the generated speech does not sound very natural. Unit selection synthesis systems, however, are capable of delivering more natural output. Nevertheless, fast speech has not been adequately implemented into such systems to date. Thus, the goal of the work presented here was to determine an optimal strategy for modeling fast speech in unit selection speech synthesis to provide potential users with a more natural sounding alternative for fast speech output

Vocal accommodation in human-computer interaction : modeling and integration into spoken dialogue systems

With the rapidly increasing usage of voice-activated devices worldwide, verbal communication with computers is steadily becoming more common. Although speech is the principal natural manner of human communication, it is still challenging for computers, and users had been growing accustomed to adjusting their speaking style for computers. Such adjustments occur naturally, and typically unconsciously, in humans during an exchange to control the social distance between the interlocutors and improve the conversation’s efficiency. This phenomenon is called accommodation and it occurs on various modalities in human communication, like hand gestures, facial expressions, eye gaze, lexical and grammatical choices, and others. Vocal accommodation deals with phonetic-level changes occurring in segmental and suprasegmental features. A decrease in the difference between the speakers’ feature realizations results in convergence, while an increasing distance leads to divergence. The lack of such mutual adjustments made naturally by humans in computers’ speech creates a gap between human-human and human-computer interactions. Moreover, voice-activated systems currently speak in exactly the same manner to all users, regardless of their speech characteristics or realizations of specific features. Detecting phonetic variations and generating adaptive speech output would enhance user personalization, offer more human-like communication, and ultimately should improve the overall interaction experience. Thus, investigating these aspects of accommodation will help to understand and improving human-computer interaction. This thesis provides a comprehensive overview of the required building blocks for a roadmap toward the integration of accommodation capabilities into spoken dialogue systems. These include conducting human-human and human-computer interaction experiments to examine the differences in vocal behaviors, approaches for modeling these empirical findings, methods for introducing phonetic variations in synthesized speech, and a way to combine all these components into an accommodative system. While each component is a wide research field by itself, they depend on each other and hence should be jointly considered. The overarching goal of this thesis is therefore not only to show how each of the aspects can be further developed, but also to demonstrate and motivate the connections between them. A special emphasis is put throughout the thesis on the importance of the temporal aspect of accommodation. Humans constantly change their speech over the course of a conversation. Therefore, accommodation processes should be treated as continuous, dynamic phenomena. Measuring differences in a few discrete points, e.g., beginning and end of an interaction, may leave many accommodation events undiscovered or overly smoothed. To justify the effort of introducing accommodation in computers, it should first be proven that humans even show any phonetic adjustments when talking to a computer as they do with a human being. As there is no definitive metric for measuring accommodation and evaluating its quality, it is important to empirically study humans productions to later use as references for possible behaviors. In this work, this investigation encapsulates different experimental configurations to achieve a better picture of accommodation effects. First, vocal accommodation was inspected where it naturally occurs, namely in spontaneous human-human conversations. For this purpose, a collection of real-world sales conversations, each with a different representative-prospect pair, was collected and analyzed. These conversations offer a glance into accommodation effects in authentic, unscripted interactions with the common goal of negotiating a deal on the one hand, but with the individual facet of each side of trying to get the best terms on the other hand. The conversations were analyzed using cross-correlation and time series techniques to capture the change dynamics over time. It was found that successful conversations are distinguishable from failed ones by multiple measures. Furthermore, the sales representative proved to be better at leading the vocal changes, i.e., making the prospect follow their speech styles rather than the other way around. They also showed a stronger tendency to take that lead at an earlier stage, all the more so in successful conversations. The fact that accommodation occurs more by trained speakers and improves their performances fits anecdotal best practices of sales experts, which are now also proven scientifically. Following these results, the next experiment came closer to the final goal of this work and investigated vocal accommodation effects in human-computer interaction. This was done via a shadowing experiment, which offers a controlled setting for examining phonetic variations. As spoken dialogue systems with such accommodation capabilities (like this work aims to achieve) do not exist yet, a simulated system was used to introduce these changes to the participants, who believed they help with the testing of a language learning tutoring system. After determining their preference concerning three segmental phonetic features, participants were listen-ing to either natural or synthesized voices of male and female speakers, which produced the participants’ dispreferred variation of the aforementioned features. Accommodation occurred in all cases, but the natural voices triggered stronger effects. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that participants were accommodating toward synthetic voices as well, which means that social mechanisms are applied in humans also when speaking with computer-based interlocutors. The shadowing paradigm was utilized also to test whether accommodation is a phenomenon associated only with speech or with other vocal productions as well. To that end, accommodation in the singing of familiar and novel music was examined. Interestingly, accommodation was found in both cases, though in different ways. While participants seemed to use the familiar piece merely as a reference for singing more accurately, the novel piece became the goal for complete replicate. For example, one difference was that mostly pitch corrections were introduced in the former case, while in the latter also key and rhythmic patterns were adopted. Some of those findings were expected and they show that people’s more salient features are also harder to modify using external auditory influence. Lastly, a multiparty experiment with spontaneous human-human-computer interactions was carried out to compare accommodation in human-directed and computer-directed speech. The participants solved tasks for which they needed to talk both with a confederate and with an agent. This allows a direct comparison of their speech based on the addressee within the same conversation, which has not been done so far. Results show that some participants’ vocal behavior changed similarly when talking to the confederate and the agent, while others’ speech varied only with the confederate. Further analysis found that the greatest factor for this difference was the order in which the participants talked with the interlocutors. Apparently, those who first talked to the agent alone saw it more as a social actor in the conversation, while those who interacted with it after talking to the confederate treated it more as a means to achieve a goal, and thus behaved differently with it. In the latter case, the variations in the human-directed speech were much more prominent. Differences were also found between the analyzed features, but the task type did not influence the degree of accommodation effects. The results of these experiments lead to the conclusion that vocal accommodation does occur in human-computer interactions, even if often to lesser degrees. With the question of whether people accommodate to computer-based interlocutors as well answered, the next step would be to describe accommodative behaviors in a computer-processable manner. Two approaches are proposed here: computational and statistical. The computational model aims to capture the presumed cognitive process associated with accommodation in humans. This comprises various steps, such as detecting the variable feature’s sound, adding instances of it to the feature’s mental memory, and determining how much the sound will change while taking into account both its current representation and the external input. Due to its sequential nature, this model was implemented as a pipeline. Each of the pipeline’s five steps corresponds to a specific part of the cognitive process and can have one or more parameters to control its output (e.g., the size of the feature’s memory or the accommodation pace). Using these parameters, precise accommodative behaviors can be crafted while applying expert knowledge to motivate the chosen parameter values. These advantages make this approach suitable for experimentation with pre-defined, deterministic behaviors where each step can be changed individually. Ultimately, this approach makes a system vocally responsive to users’ speech input. The second approach grants more evolved behaviors, by defining different core behaviors and adding non-deterministic variations on top of them. This resembles human behavioral patterns, as each person has a base way of accommodating (or not accommodating), which may arbitrarily change based on the specific circumstances. This approach offers a data-driven statistical way to extract accommodation behaviors from a given collection of interactions. First, the target feature’s values of each speaker in an interaction are converted into continuous interpolated lines by drawing one sample from the posterior distribution of a Gaussian process conditioned on the given values. Then, the gradients of these lines, which represent rates of mutual change, are used to defined discrete levels of change based on their distribution. Finally, each level is assigned a symbol, which ultimately creates a symbol sequence representation for each interaction. The sequences are clustered so that each cluster stands for a type of behavior. The sequences of a cluster can then be used to calculate n-gram probabilities that enable the generation of new sequences of the captured behavior. The specific output value is sampled from the range corresponding to the generated symbol. With this approach, accommodation behaviors are extracted directly from data, as opposed to manually crafting them. However, it is harder to describe what exactly these behaviors represent and motivate the use of one of them over the other. To bridge this gap between these two approaches, it is also discussed how they can be combined to benefit from the advantages of both. Furthermore, to generate more structured behaviors, a hierarchy of accommodation complexity levels is suggested here, from a direct adoption of users’ realizations, via specified responsiveness, and up to independent core behaviors with non-deterministic variational productions. Besides a way to track and represent vocal changes, an accommodative system also needs a text-to-speech component that is able to realize those changes in the system’s speech output. Speech synthesis models are typically trained once on data with certain characteristics and do not change afterward. This prevents such models from introducing any variation in specific sounds and other phonetic features. Two methods for directly modifying such features are explored here. The first is based on signal modifications applied to the output signal after it was generated by the system. The processing is done between the timestamps of the target features and uses pre-defined scripts that modify the signal to achieve the desired values. This method is more suitable for continuous features like vowel quality, especially in the case of subtle changes that do not necessarily lead to a categorical sound change. The second method aims to capture phonetic variations in the training data. To that end, a training corpus with phonemic representations is used, as opposed to the regular graphemic representations. This way, the model can learn more direct relations between phonemes and sound instead of surface forms and sound, which, depending on the language, might be more complex and depend on their surrounding letters. The target variations themselves don’t necessarily need to be explicitly present in the training data, all time the different sounds are naturally distinguishable. In generation time, the current target feature’s state determines the phoneme to use for generating the desired sound. This method is suitable for categorical changes, especially for contrasts that naturally exist in the language. While both methods have certain limitations, they provide a proof of concept for the idea that spoken dialogue systems may phonetically adapt their speech output in real-time and without re-training their text-to-speech models. To combine the behavior definitions and the speech manipulations, a system is required, which can connect these elements to create a complete accommodation capability. The architecture suggested here extends the standard spoken dialogue system with an additional module, which receives the transcribed speech signal from the speech recognition component without influencing the input to the language understanding component. While language the understanding component uses only textual transcription to determine the user’s intention, the added component process the raw signal along with its phonetic transcription. In this extended architecture, the accommodation model is activated in the added module and the information required for speech manipulation is sent to the text-to-speech component. However, the text-to-speech component now has two inputs, viz. the content of the system’s response coming from the language generation component and the states of the defined target features from the added component. An implementation of a web-based system with this architecture is introduced here, and its functionality is showcased by demonstrating how it can be used to conduct a shadowing experiment automatically. This has two main advantage: First, since the system recognizes the participants’ phonetic variations and automatically selects the appropriate variation to use in its response, the experimenter saves time and prevents manual annotation errors. The experimenter also automatically gains additional information, like exact timestamps of utterances, real-time visualization of the interlocutors’ productions, and the possibility to replay and analyze the interaction after the experiment is finished. The second advantage is scalability. Multiple instances of the system can run on a server and be accessed by multiple clients at the same time. This not only saves time and the logistics of bringing participants into a lab, but also allows running the experiment with different configurations (e.g., other parameter values or target features) in a controlled and reproducible way. This completes a full cycle from examining human behaviors to integrating accommodation capabilities. Though each part of it can undoubtedly be further investigated, the emphasis here is on how they depend and connect to each other. Measuring changes features without showing how they can be modeled or achieving flexible speech synthesis without considering the desired final output might not lead to the final goal of introducing accommodation capabilities into computers. Treating accommodation in human-computer interaction as one large process rather than isolated sub-problems lays the ground for more comprehensive and complete solutions in the future.Heutzutage wird die verbale Interaktion mit Computern immer gebräuchlicher, was der rasant wachsenden Anzahl von sprachaktivierten Geräten weltweit geschuldet ist. Allerdings stellt die computerseitige Handhabung gesprochener Sprache weiterhin eine große Herausforderung dar, obwohl sie die bevorzugte Art zwischenmenschlicher Kommunikation repräsentiert. Dieser Umstand führt auch dazu, dass Benutzer ihren Sprachstil an das jeweilige Gerät anpassen, um diese Handhabung zu erleichtern. Solche Anpassungen kommen in menschlicher gesprochener Sprache auch in der zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation vor. Üblicherweise ereignen sie sich unbewusst und auf natürliche Weise während eines Gesprächs, etwa um die soziale Distanz zwischen den Gesprächsteilnehmern zu kontrollieren oder um die Effizienz des Gesprächs zu verbessern. Dieses Phänomen wird als Akkommodation bezeichnet und findet auf verschiedene Weise während menschlicher Kommunikation statt. Sie äußert sich zum Beispiel in der Gestik, Mimik, Blickrichtung oder aber auch in der Wortwahl und dem verwendeten Satzbau. Vokal- Akkommodation beschäftigt sich mit derartigen Anpassungen auf phonetischer Ebene, die sich in segmentalen und suprasegmentalen Merkmalen zeigen. Werden Ausprägungen dieser Merkmale bei den Gesprächsteilnehmern im Laufe des Gesprächs ähnlicher, spricht man von Konvergenz, vergrößern sich allerdings die Unterschiede, so wird dies als Divergenz bezeichnet. Dieser natürliche gegenseitige Anpassungsvorgang fehlt jedoch auf der Seite des Computers, was zu einer Lücke in der Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion führt. Darüber hinaus verwenden sprachaktivierte Systeme immer dieselbe Sprachausgabe und ignorieren folglich etwaige Unterschiede zum Sprachstil des momentanen Benutzers. Die Erkennung dieser phonetischen Abweichungen und die Erstellung von anpassungsfähiger Sprachausgabe würden zur Personalisierung dieser Systeme beitragen und könnten letztendlich die insgesamte Benutzererfahrung verbessern. Aus diesem Grund kann die Erforschung dieser Aspekte von Akkommodation helfen, Mensch-Maschine-Interaktion besser zu verstehen und weiterzuentwickeln. Die vorliegende Dissertation stellt einen umfassenden Überblick zu Bausteinen bereit, die nötig sind, um Akkommodationsfähigkeiten in Sprachdialogsysteme zu integrieren. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden auch interaktive Mensch-Mensch- und Mensch- Maschine-Experimente durchgeführt. In diesen Experimenten wurden Differenzen der vokalen Verhaltensweisen untersucht und Methoden erforscht, wie phonetische Abweichungen in synthetische Sprachausgabe integriert werden können. Um die erhaltenen Ergebnisse empirisch auswerten zu können, wurden hierbei auch verschiedene Modellierungsansätze erforscht. Fernerhin wurde der Frage nachgegangen, wie sich die betreffenden Komponenten kombinieren lassen, um ein Akkommodationssystem zu konstruieren. Jeder dieser Aspekte stellt für sich genommen bereits einen überaus breiten Forschungsbereich dar. Allerdings sind sie voneinander abhängig und sollten zusammen betrachtet werden. Aus diesem Grund liegt ein übergreifender Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation darauf, nicht nur aufzuzeigen, wie sich diese Aspekte weiterentwickeln lassen, sondern auch zu motivieren, wie sie zusammenhängen. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit der zeitlichen Komponente des Akkommodationsprozesses, was auf der Beobachtung fußt, dass Menschen im Laufe eines Gesprächs ständig ihren Sprachstil ändern. Diese Beobachtung legt nahe, derartige Prozesse als kontinuierliche und dynamische Prozesse anzusehen. Fasst man jedoch diesen Prozess als diskret auf und betrachtet z.B. nur den Beginn und das Ende einer Interaktion, kann dies dazu führen, dass viele Akkommodationsereignisse unentdeckt bleiben oder übermäßig geglättet werden. Um die Entwicklung eines vokalen Akkommodationssystems zu rechtfertigen, muss zuerst bewiesen werden, dass Menschen bei der vokalen Interaktion mit einem Computer ein ähnliches Anpassungsverhalten zeigen wie bei der Interaktion mit einem Menschen. Da es keine eindeutig festgelegte Metrik für das Messen des Akkommodationsgrades und für die Evaluierung der Akkommodationsqualität gibt, ist es besonders wichtig, die Sprachproduktion von Menschen empirisch zu untersuchen, um sie als Referenz für mögliche Verhaltensweisen anzuwenden. In dieser Arbeit schließt diese Untersuchung verschiedene experimentelle Anordnungen ein, um einen besseren Überblick über Akkommodationseffekte zu erhalten. In einer ersten Studie wurde die vokale Akkommodation in einer Umgebung untersucht, in der sie natürlich vorkommt: in einem spontanen Mensch-Mensch Gespräch. Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine Sammlung von echten Verkaufsgesprächen gesammelt und analysiert, wobei in jedem dieser Gespräche ein anderes Handelsvertreter-Neukunde Paar teilgenommen hatte. Diese Gespräche verschaffen einen Einblick in Akkommodationseffekte während spontanen authentischen Interaktionen, wobei die Gesprächsteilnehmer zwei Ziele verfolgen: zum einen soll ein Geschäft verhandelt werden, zum anderen möchte aber jeder Teilnehmer für sich die besten Bedingungen aushandeln. Die Konversationen wurde durch das Kreuzkorrelation-Zeitreihen-Verfahren analysiert, um die dynamischen Änderungen im Zeitverlauf zu erfassen. Hierbei kam zum Vorschein, dass sich erfolgreiche Konversationen von fehlgeschlagenen Gesprächen deutlich unterscheiden lassen. Überdies wurde festgestellt, dass die Handelsvertreter die treibende Kraft von vokalen Änderungen sind, d.h. sie können die Neukunden eher dazu zu bringen, ihren Sprachstil anzupassen, als andersherum. Es wurde auch beobachtet, dass sie diese Akkommodation oft schon zu einem frühen Zeitpunkt auslösen, was besonders bei erfolgreichen Gesprächen beobachtet werden konnte. Dass diese Akkommodation stärker bei trainierten Sprechern ausgelöst wird, deckt sich mit den meist anekdotischen Empfehlungen von erfahrenen Handelsvertretern, die bisher nie wissenschaftlich nachgewiesen worden sind. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen beschäfti

Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions for Biomedical Applications

The International Workshop on Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions for Biomedical Applications (MAVEBA) came into being in 1999 from the particularly felt need of sharing know-how, objectives and results between areas that until then seemed quite distinct such as bioengineering, medicine and singing. MAVEBA deals with all aspects concerning the study of the human voice with applications ranging from the newborn to the adult and elderly. Over the years the initial issues have grown and spread also in other fields of research such as occupational voice disorders, neurology, rehabilitation, image and video analysis. MAVEBA takes place every two years in Firenze, Italy. This edition celebrates twenty-two years of uninterrupted and successful research in the field of voice analysis

Fundamental frequency modelling: an articulatory perspective with target approximation and deep learning

Current statistical parametric speech synthesis (SPSS) approaches typically aim at state/frame-level acoustic modelling, which leads to a problem of frame-by-frame independence. Besides that, whichever learning technique is used, hidden Markov model (HMM), deep neural network (DNN) or recurrent neural network (RNN), the fundamental idea is to set up a direct mapping from linguistic to acoustic features. Although progress is frequently reported, this idea is questionable in terms of biological plausibility. This thesis aims at addressing the above issues by integrating dynamic mechanisms of human speech production as a core component of F0 generation and thus developing a more human-like F0 modelling paradigm. By introducing an articulatory F0 generation model – target approximation (TA) – between text and speech that controls syllable-synchronised F0 generation, contextual F0 variations are processed in two separate yet integrated stages: linguistic to motor, and motor to acoustic. With the goal of demonstrating that human speech movement can be considered as a dynamic process of target approximation and that the TA model is a valid F0 generation model to be used at the motor-to-acoustic stage, a TA-based pitch control experiment is conducted first to simulate the subtle human behaviour of online compensation for pitch-shifted auditory feedback. Then, the TA parameters are collectively controlled by linguistic features via a deep or recurrent neural network (DNN/RNN) at the linguistic-to-motor stage. We trained the systems on a Mandarin Chinese dataset consisting of both statements and questions. The TA-based systems generally outperformed the baseline systems in both objective and subjective evaluations. Furthermore, the amount of required linguistic features were reduced first to syllable level only (with DNN) and then with all positional information removed (with RNN). Fewer linguistic features as input with limited number of TA parameters as output led to less training data and lower model complexity, which in turn led to more efficient training and faster synthesis

Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions for Biomedical Applications

The International Workshop on Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions for Biomedical Applications (MAVEBA) came into being in 1999 from the particularly felt need of sharing know-how, objectives and results between areas that until then seemed quite distinct such as bioengineering, medicine and singing. MAVEBA deals with all aspects concerning the study of the human voice with applications ranging from the neonate to the adult and elderly. Over the years the initial issues have grown and spread also in other aspects of research such as occupational voice disorders, neurology, rehabilitation, image and video analysis. MAVEBA takes place every two years always in Firenze, Italy. This edition celebrates twenty years of uninterrupted and succesfully research in the field of voice analysis

Registration and statistical analysis of the tongue shape during speech production

This thesis analyzes the human tongue shape during speech production. First, a semi-supervised approach is derived for estimating the tongue shape from volumetric magnetic resonance imaging data of the human vocal tract. Results of this extraction are used to derive parametric tongue models. Next, a framework is presented for registering sparse motion capture data of the tongue by means of such a model. This method allows to generate full three-dimensional animations of the tongue. Finally, a multimodal and statistical text-to-speech system is developed that is able to synthesize audio and synchronized tongue motion from text.Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Analyse der menschlichen Zungenform während der Sprachproduktion. Zunächst wird ein semi-überwachtes Verfahren vorgestellt, mit dessen Hilfe sich Zungenformen von volumetrischen Magnetresonanztomographie- Aufnahmen des menschlichen Vokaltrakts schätzen lassen. Die Ergebnisse dieses Extraktionsverfahrens werden genutzt, um ein parametrisches Zungenmodell zu konstruieren. Danach wird eine Methode hergeleitet, die ein solches Modell nutzt, um spärliche Bewegungsaufnahmen der Zunge zu registrieren. Dieser Ansatz erlaubt es, dreidimensionale Animationen der Zunge zu erstellen. Zuletzt wird ein multimodales und statistisches Text-to-Speech-System entwickelt, das in der Lage ist, Audio und die dazu synchrone Zungenbewegung zu synthetisieren.German Research Foundatio

Grapheme-to-phoneme conversion in the era of globalization

This thesis focuses on the phonetic transcription in the framework of text-to-speech conversion, especially on improving adaptability, reliability and multilingual support in the phonetic module. The language is constantly evolving making the adaptability one of major concerns in phonetic transcription. The phonetic transcription has been addressed from a data- based approach. On one hand, several classifiers such as Decision Trees, Finite State Transducers, Hidden Markov Models were studied and applied to the grapheme-to-phoneme conversion task. In addition, we analyzed a method of generation of pronunciation by analogy, considering different strategies. Further improvements were obtained by means of application of the transformation-based error-driven learning algorithm. The most significant improvements were obtained for classifiers with higher error rates. The experimental results show that the adaptability of phonetic module was improved, having obtained word error rates as low as 12% (for English). Next, steps were taken towards increasing reliability of the output of the phonetic module. Although, the G2P results were quite good, in order to achieve a higher level of reliability we propose using dictionary fusion. The ways the pronunciations are represented in different lexica depend on many factors such as: expert¿s opinion, local accent specifications, phonetic alphabet chosen, assimilation level (for proper names), etc. There are often discrepancies between pronunciations of the same word found in different lexica. The fusion system is a system that learns phoneme-to-phoneme transformations and converts pronunciations from the source lexicon into pronunciations from the target lexicon. Another important part of this thesis consisted in acing the challenge of multilingualism, a phenomenon that is becoming a usual part of our daily lives. Our goal was to obtain such pronunciations for foreign inclusions that would not be totally unfamiliar either to a native or proficient speakers of the language to be adapted, or to speakers of this language with average to low proficiency. Nativization by analogy was applied to both orthographic and phonetic forms of the word. The results obtained show that phonetic analogy gives better performance than analogy in the orthographic domain for both proper names and common nouns. Both objective and perceptual results obtained show the validity of this proposal.Fa tan sols uns deu anys les aplicacions de sistemes TTS eren molt més limitades, encara que un passat tan recent sembla més llunyà a causa dels canvis produïts en les nostres vides per la invasió massiva de les tecnologies intel·ligents. Els processos d’automatització de serveis també han assolit nous nivells. Què és el que defineix un bon sistema TTS avui dia? El mercat exigeix que aquest sigui molt adaptable a qualsevol tipus d’àmbit. També és imprescindible un alt nivell de fiabilitat ja que un simple error d’un TTS pot causar problemes seriosos en el nostre dia a dia. La nostra agenda és cada vegada més exigent i hem de fer front a més volums d’informació en menys temps. Deleguem les nostres tasques quotidianes als nostres dispositius intel·ligents que ens ajuden a llegir llibres, triar productes, trobar un lloc al mapa, etc. A més viatgem més i més cada dia. Aprenem a parlar noves llengües, les barregem, en un món més i més globalitzat. Un sistema TTS que no és capaç de fer front a les entrades multilingües no serà capaç de sostenir la competència. Els sistemes TTS moderns han de ser multilingües. La transcripció fonètica és el primer mòdul del TTS per la qual cosa el seu correcte funcionament és fonamental. Aquesta tesi se centra en la millora de l’adaptabilitat, fiabilitat i suport multilingüe del mòdul fonètic del nostre sistema TTS. El mòdul de transcripció fonètica del TTS va passar de ser basat en regles o diccionaris a ser automàtic, derivat de dades. La llengua està en constant evolució, igual que tots els organismes vius. És per això que l’adaptabilitat és un dels principals problemes de la transcripció fonètica. Per millorar-la es necessita un mètode basat en dades que funcioni bé per a derivar la pronunciació de paraules no trobades al lèxic del sistema. En aquesta tesi es comparen diferents mètodes G2P impulsats per dades que utilitzen les mateixes dades d’entrenament i test i es proposen millores. S’han aplicat diversos classificadors basats en dades, com ara arbres de decisió, traductors d’estats finits i models de Markov, a la tasca de transcripció fonètica, analitzant i comparant els resultats. L’algorisme TBL, basat en aprenentatge dels errors proporciona millores adicionals als classificadors esmentats. Aquest mètode permet capturar patrons d’errors i corregir-los. Les millores més significatives s’obtenen per classificadors amb taxes d’errors més gran. Els millors resultats s’obtenen mitjançant l’aplicació del millor classificador FST amb posterior correcció dels errors pel TBL. Els resultats obtingut per altres classificadors i corregits pel TBL mostren millores entre 2-4 punts percentuals en la taxa d’error de les paraules. La millora que s’obté mitjançant l’aplicació del TBL per als resultats del classificador més simple basat només en correspondències lletra-fonema presents en el corpus d’entrenament, ML, és enorme (77-83 punts percentuals depenent del lèxic), el que demostra l’eficàcia del TBL per si sol. L’èxit de l’algorisme TBL demostra l’eficàcia de l’aprenentatge basat en els errors, que és bastant similar a l’aprenentatge de llengües pels humans. Una altra tècnica que els éssers humans utilitzen de forma regular en l’aprenentatge d’idiomes és la pronunciació per analogia. Això és encara més cert per a llengües amb ortografia profunda, on la correspondència entre la forma escrita i parlada és bastant ambigua. Per millorar encara més la capacitat d’adaptació del nostre mòdul de pronunciació fonètica, es va desenvolupar un algorisme de pronunciació per analogia. Aquest algorisme troba arcs de lletres als quals correspon la mateixa pronunciació i calcula la seva freqüència. La pronunciació d’una nova paraula es construeix amb els arcs més llargs que constitueixen el camí més curt a través del graf de totes les pronunciacions disponibles per a aquesta paraula. Es basa en paràmetres com ara la freqüència d’arc, posició en la paraula, etc. Les pronunciacions que contenen el menor nombre d’arcs (si hi ha més d’una) es donen un rang i les estratègies de puntuació escullen la millor opció. En aquest treball s’han proposat noves estratègies de puntuació i s’han obtingut resultats prometedors. Una de les noves estratègies propostes clarament supera a les altres. Les noves estratègies propostes també apareixen a la llista de les millors combinacions d’estratègies. Els millors resultats per al PbA són entre 63 i 88 % paraules correctes segons el lèxic. S’han avaluat els G2P no solament per a l’anglès, si no també per altres idiomes europeus. També s’ha considerat el cas de la parla contínua. Per L’anglès, La adaptació de la pronunciació a la parla contínua considera les formes febles. Els resultats generals mostren que la capacitat d’adaptació del mòdul fonètic ha estat millorada. També s’ha actuat en línies que permeten augmentar la fiabilitat del mòdul fonètic. Tot i que els resultats experimentals per al G2P són bastant bons, encara hi ha errors que poden impedir que la intel·ligibilitat de certes paraules i, per tant, reduir la qualitat de la parla en general. Es proposa aconseguir un major nivell de fiabilitat a través de fusió de diccionaris. Les pronunciació de les paraules presents en els diccionaris depèn de molts factors, per exemple: opinió experta, especificacions de l’accent local, alfabet fonètic triat, nivell d’assimilació (per a noms propis), etc. Sovint hi ha discrepàncies entre la pronunciació de la mateixa paraula en diferents lèxics. En general, aquestes discrepàncies, encara que de vegades significatives, no obstaculitzen greument la pronunciació global de la paraula ja que totes les pronunciacions lèxic han estat prèviament validades per un lingüista expert. Aquestes discrepàncies normalment es troben a la pronunciació de vocals i diftongs. La substitució de vocals per similars no es considera un error greu perquè no afecta la intel·ligibilitat i per tant la qualitat de veu. El sistema de fusió proposat es basa en el mètode P2P, que transforma les pronunciacions del lèxic d’origen a les pronunciacions del lèxic de destí (el sistema està capacitat per aprendre aquestes transformacions). Per entrenar el classificador, es seleccionen les entrades comunes entre el lèxic font i destí. Els experiments es duen a terme tant per paraules comuns com per a noms propis. Els experiment realitzat s’han basat en les tècniques DT i FST. Els resultats mostren que la qualitat de la parla en general es pot millorar significativament donadas les baixes taxes d’error de G2P i una àmplia cobertura del diccionari del sistema. El sistema TTS final és més adaptable i fiable, més preparat per afrontar el repte del multilingüisme, el fenomen que ja forma part habitual de les nostres vides quotidianes. Aquesta tesi considera contextos que contenen la barreja de llengües, on la llengua pot canviar de forma inesperada. Aquestes situacions abunden en les xarxes socials, fòrums, etc. Es proposa un esquema de G2P multilingüe incloent la nativització. El primer component d’un TTS multilingüe és el mòdul d’identificació d’idioma. S’ha desenvolupat un identificador d’idioma basat en n -gramas (de lletres) obtenint bons resultats. Els contextos amb llengües mixtes han de ser tractats amb especial delicadesa. En general, cada frase o paràgraf tenen una llengua principal i les paraules estrangeres presents s’hi consideren inclusions. A l’hora de decidir com pronunciar frases en diverses llengües es poden considerar dos escenaris: 1) aplicar, per cada llengua el diferents G2P classificadors propis de la llengua (es produiria canvis fonètics bruscs que sonarien molt poc natural); 2) aplicar el classificador G2P per a l’idioma principal de la frase suposant que aquesta pronunciació seria més acceptable que la que conté fonemes estrangers. I si cap de les propostes anteriors es acceptada? Per països com Espanya, on el domini de llengües estrangeres per la població general és bastant limitat, proposem nativitzar la pronunciació de paraules estrangeres en frases espanyoles. Quins criteris s’han d’utilitzar tenint en compte les significatives diferències en l’inventari de fonemes? El nostre objectiu és obtenir pronunciacions que no són del tot desconegudes i que siguin acceptades tant per parlants nadius o amb alt domini de l’idioma estranger com per parlants d’aquesta llengua amb nivell mitjà o baix. En aquest treball la nativització es porta a terme per a les inclusions angleses i catalanes en frases en castellà. Quan hi ha diferències significatives en els inventaris de fonemes entre les llengües nativització presenta reptes addicionals. Per tal de validar ràpidament la idea de nativització es van crear taules de mapeig de fonemes estrangers als nativizats, també es va dur a terme una avaluació perceptual. La nativització basada en taules mostra un major nivell d’acceptació per part del públic que la síntesi sense cap nativiztació. Per tal de millorar encara més els resultats de nativització de forma eficaç es necessita un mètode basat en dades. Com a gran part de pronunciacions estrangeres s’aprenen per analogia, l’aplicació del PbA a aquesta tasca és idoni, sobretot perquè ja ha demostrat excel·lents resultats per a la tasca de transcripció fonètica. Per a això s’explora l’analogia tant en el domini ortogràfic com fonètic. Tots els mètodes basats en dades requereixen un corpus d’entrenament i PbA, per descomptat, no és una excepció. Ja que cap corpus de nativització adequat per a la tasca estava disponible es va prendre la decisió de crear un corpus d’entrenament i test per entrenar i validar el nostre classificador per inclusions angleses en castellà, i un altre joc per a les catalanes. Tots els dos corpus d’entrenament contenen 1.000 paraules i són ortogràficament equilibrats. S’aplica la nativització per analogia basada en la forma ortogràfica de la paraula G2Pnat i també basada en la forma fonètica acs ppnat per tal d’nativitzar paraules comunes i noms propis en anglès i paraules comunes en català en frases en castellà. Els resultats obtinguts mostren que l’analogia fonètica dóna un millor rendiment que l’analogia en el domini ortogràfic pels noms propis i paraules comunes. No obstant això, els resultats obtinguts per als noms propis anglesos es troben uns 12 punts percentuals per sota dels obtinguts per a les paraules comunes en anglès. Això és degut al fet que la pronunciació noms propis està influenciada per factors més complexos i fins i tot per als éssers humans presenta importants reptes. L’algorisme TBL també s’ha aplicat per millorar els resultats de nativización per inclusions angleses. S’obtenen millores per als resultats obtinguts per P2Pnat, així com per als resultats obtinguts per les taules de nativiztació. Els bons resultats obtinguts per l’algorisme TBL aplicat a la predicció del mètode ML demostra l’eficàcia del mètode d’aprenentatge a partir d’errors, també per a aquesta tasca. A l’avaluació perceptual duta a terme per inclusions angleses en castellà, es va demanar als oients que votessin el millor dels tres mètodes disponibles: G2P (per castellà), NatTAB i P2Pnat. P2Pnat és triat com el millor en el 50 % dels casos mentre que el G2P per a espanyol obté la majoria de vots negatius (45 % dels casos). Aquests resultats perceptuals i els encoratjadors resultats objectius demostren la idoneïtat de nativització per sistemes TTS multilingüesHace tan sólo unos diez años, las aplicaciones de sistemas TTS estaban mucho más limitadas, aunque un pasado tan reciente parece más lejano debido a los cambios producidos en nuestras vidas por la invasión masiva de las tecnologías inteligentes. Los procesos de automatización de los servicios han alcanzado a nuevos niveles. ¿Qué es lo que define un buen sistema TTS hoy en día? El mercado exige que éste sea muy adaptable a cualquier tipo de ámbito. También es imprescindible un alto nivel de fiabilidad, ya que un simple error de un TTS puede causar problemas serios en nuestro día a día. Nuestra agenda es cada vez más exigente y tenemos que hacer frente a un volumen cada vez mayor de información en menos tiempo. Delegamos nuestras tareas cotidianas a nuestros dispositivos inteligentes que nos ayudan a leer libros, elegir productos, encontrar un lugar en el mapa, etc. Además, cada día viajamos más, aprendemos a hablar nuevas lenguas, las mezclamos, volviéndonos más y más globalizados. Un sistema TTS que no sea capaz de hacer frente a las entradas multilngües no será capaz de sostener la competencia. Los sistemas TTS modernos tienen que ser multilngües. La transcripción fonética es el primer módulo del TTS por lo cual su correcto funcionamiento es fundamental. Esta tesis se centra en la mejora de la adaptabilidad, fiabilidad y soporte del módulo fonético de nuestro sistema TTS. El módulo de transcripción fonética del TTS pasó de ser basado en reglas o diccionarios a ser automática, basada en datos. La lengua está en constante evolución al igual que todos los organismos vivos. Es por eso que la adaptabilidad es uno de los principales problemas de la transcripción fonética. Para mejorarla se necesita un método basado en datos que funcione bien para derivar la pronunciación de palabras no encontradas en el léxico del sistema. En esta tesis se comparan diferentes métodos G2P basados en datos, utilizando los mismos datos de entrenamiento y test y se proponen mejoras. Se han estudiado clasificadores basados en datos, tales como árboles de decisión, traductores de estados finitos y modelos de Markov, aplicados a la tarea de transcripción fonética y comparando los resultados. El algoritmo TBL, basado en aprendizaje de los errores y que permite capturar patrones de errores y corregirlos ha aportado nuevas mejoras, que han sido especialmente significativas para los clasificadores con tasa de error más alta. Los mejores resultados se obtienen mediante la aplicación del mejor clasificador FST con posterior corrección de los errores por el TBL. Los resultados obtenido por otros clasificadores y corregidos por el TBL muestran mejoras entre 2-4 puntos porcentuales en la tasa de error de las palabras. La mejora que se obtiene mediante la aplicación del TBL para a los resultados del clasificador más simple, basado solamente en correspondencias letra-fonema presentes en el corpus de entrenamiento, ML, es enorme (77-83 puntos porcentuales dependiendo del léxico), lo que demuestra la eficacia del TBL por si solo. El éxito del algoritmo TBL demuestra la eficacia del aprendizaje basado en los errores, que es bastante similar al aprendizaje de lenguas por los humanos. Otra técnica que los seres humanos utilizan de forma regular en el aprendizaje de idiomas es pronunciación por analogía. Esto es aún más cierto para lenguas con ortografía profunda, donde la correspondencia entre la forma escrita y hablada es bastante ambigua. Para mejorar aún más la capacidad de adaptación de nuestro módulo de pronunciación fonética, se ha estudiado un algoritmo de pronunciación por analogía. Este algoritmo encuentra arcos de letras a los que corresponde la misma pronunciación y calcula su frecuencia. La pronunciación de una nueva palabra se construye con los arcos más largos que constituyen el camino más corto a través del grafo de todas las pronunciaciones disponibles para esta palabra. Se basa en parámetros tales como la frecuencia de arco, posición en la palabra, etc., las pronunciaciones que contienen el menor número de arcos (si hay más de una ) se dan un rango y las estrategias de puntuación escogen la mejor opción. En esta tesis se han propuesto nuevas estrategias de puntuación, obteniéndose resultados prometedores. Una de las nuevas estrategias propuestas claramente supera a los demás. Además, las estrategias propuestas también aparecen seleccionadas al observar las mejores combinaciones de estrategias. Los mejores resultados para PbA son entre 63 y 88% palabras correctas según el léxico. Se obtienen resultados G2P no solamente para el inglés, sino también para otros idiomas europeos. También se ha considerado el caso del habla continua, adaptando la pronunciación para el habla continua del inglés, utilizando las llamadas formas débiles. Los resultados generales muestran que la capacidad de adaptación del módulo fonético ha sido mejorada. Otra línea de investigación en esta tesis se encamina a aumentar la fiabilidad del módulo fonético. Aunque, los resultados experimentales para el G2P son bastante buenos, todavía existen errores que pueden impedir que la inteligibilidad de ciertas palabras y, por lo tanto, reducir la calidad del habla en general. Para lograr un mayor nivel de fiabilidad se propone utilizar la fusión de diccionarios. Las pronunciación de las palabras presentes en los distintos diccionarios depende de muchos factores, por ejemplo: opinión experta, especificaciones del acento local, alfabeto fonético elegido, nivel de asimilación (para nombres propios), etc. A menudo hay discrepancias entre la pronunciación de la misma palabra en diferentes léxicos. Por lo general, estas discrepancias, aunque a veces significativas, no obstaculizan gravemente la pronunciación global de la palabra ya que todas las pronunciaciones léxico han sido previamente validadas por un lingüista experto. Estas discrepancias normalmente se encuentran en la pronunciación de vocales y diptongos. La sustitución de vocales por otras similares no se considera un error grave porque no afecta la inteligibilidad y por lo tanto la calidad de voz. El sistema de fusión estudiado es un sistema P2P que transforma las pronunciaciones del léxico de origen en pronunciaciones del léxico destino (el sistema está capacitado para aprender estas transformaciones). Para entrenar el clasificador, se seleccionan las entradas comunes entre el léxico fuente y destino. Se han realizado experimentos tanto para las palabras comunes como para los nombres propios, considerando los métodos de transformación basados en DT y FST. Los resultados experimentales muestran que la calidad del habla en general se puede mejorar significativamente dadas las bajas tasas de error de G2P y la amplia cobertura del diccionario del sistema. Un sistema TTS adaptable y fiable tiene que estar preparado para afrontar el reto del multilingüísmo, fenómeno que ya forma parte habitual de nuestras vidas cotidianas. Esta tesis también ha considerado contextos que contienen la mezcla de lenguas, en los que la lengua puede cambiar de forma inesperada. Este tipo de contextos abundan en las redes sociales, foros, etc. Se propone un esquema de G2P multilngüe incluyendo la nativización. El primer componente de un TTS multilngüe es el módulo de identificación de idioma. Se ha desarrollado un identificador de idioma basado n -gramas (de letras) que proporciona buenos resultados. Los contextos en los que intervienen varias lenguas deben ser tratados con especial delicadeza. Por lo general, cada frase o párrafo tienen una lengua principal y las palabras extranjeras presentes en ella se consideran inclusiones. Al definir la estrategia sobre cómo pronunciar frases en varias lenguas puede partirse de dos escenarios: 1) aplicar a cada lengua un clasificador G2P distinto e independiente (que produciría cambios fonéticos bruscos que sonarían muy poco natural); 2) aplicar el clasificador G2P para el idioma principal de la frase suponiendo que es