Impact of rain, swell, and surface currents on the electromagnetic bias in GNSS-Reflectometry

The assessment of the electromagnetic (EM) bias is required to predict the performance of upcoming global navigation satellite systems-reflectometry (GNSS-R) altimetry systems, and its impact in data assimilation climate studies. In previous studies, the EM bias in bistatic GNSS-R altimetry (L-band) was numerically estimated for a wind-driven sea surface height spectrum, including the time-domain variability. In the present study, spectral models for the rain, swell, and surface currents are used to compute a perturbed wind-driven sea surface height spectrum, from which a perturbed three-dimensional (3-D) time-evolving wind-driven sea surface height is computed. The generated sea surface is then illuminated by a right hand circular polarization (RHCP) L-band EM wave, and the wave scattered from each facet is computed from each facet using the physical optics (PO) method under the Kirchhoff approximation (KA). Finally, the EM bias is computed numerically as the height of each patch times the forward-scattering coefficient, divided by the average of the forward-scattering coefficient. The impact of rain on the EM bias is a moderate decrease (in magnitude) due to the damping of the large gravity waves, which is more significant as the wind speed increases. The impact of swell is a small increase (in magnitude) mostly due to the change of the local incidence angles. The impact of currents can be either a moderate increase or decrease (in magnitude), depending on the sense of the current with respect to the wind, due to a change in the surface roughness.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Contributions to the determination of electromagnetic bias in Gnss-R altimetry

In this Ph. D. dissertation the electromagnetic bias in GNSS-R (Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry) altimetry has been studied. GNSS-R altimetry is a new type of system that uses navigation signals as signals of opportunity for Earth observation. The electromagnetic bias has been a topic of research for several decades in conventional radar altimetry, typically at C and Ku bands, and pointing in the nadir direction, but it is a new subject in altimetry GNSS-R. Previous studies on the electromagnetic bias have been first reviewed: the Weakly Non-Linear theory (WNL), the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), and a combination of both models. After a brief study of both the WNL and the MTF, a combined method is selected, simulated and validated at Ku and C bands, and then extrapolated at L band, the band of the GNSS signals. Then, the EM bias is studied in the time domain and it is characterized using statistical descriptors. Finally, the impact of natural phenomena such as rain, waves and currents in the electromagnetic bias is calculated. In conclusion, this dissertation has demonstrated that the electromagnetic bias is not only a function of the wind speed (or waves), but also a function of both the incidence and azimuth angles. The study in the time domain has been shown that it exhibits a non-linear behavior. Moreover, heavy rains decrease the electromagnetic bias, as they damp the waves, while sea currents in the opposite direction of the wind speed increase the electromagnetic bias, because they increase the surface "roughness", while currents with the same direction of the wind, reduce itEn esta tesis doctoral se estudia el sesgo electromagnético en altimetría GNSS-R (Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry). La altimetría GNSS-R es un nuevo tipo de sistema que utiliza las señales de navegación como señales de oportunidad para la observación de la tierra. El sesgo electromagnético ha sido un tema de investigación durante varias décadas en altimetría radar convencional utilizando típicamente las bandas C y Ku, y apuntando en la dirección nadir, pero es un tema novedoso en altimetría GNSS-R. En primer lugar se revisan los estudios previos sobre el sesgo electromagnético: la Weakly Non-Linear theory (WNL), la Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), y modelos combinados de ambos. Después de un breve estudio tanto de la WNL como de la MTF, se selecciona un modelo combinado, se simula, y valida en las bandas C y Ku, y luego es extrapolado a la banda L, la banda de las señales de los GNSS. En segundo lugar, se estudia el sesgo electromagnético en el dominio del tiempo y es caracterizado utilizando descriptores estadísticos. Por último, se calcula el impacto de los fenómenos naturales como la lluvia, el oleaje y las corrientes en el sesgo electromagnético . En conclusión, esta tesis doctoral ha demostrado que el sesgo electromagnético no es sólo una función de la velocidad del viento (o del oleaje), sino que también es una función tanto del ángulo de incidencia, como del ángulo de acimut. El estudio en el dominio del tiempo ha demostrado que tiene un comportamiento no lineal. Por otra parte, las fuertes lluvias disminuyen el sesgo electromagnético, pues amortiguan las olas, mientras que las corrientes con dirección opuesta al viento aumentan el sesgo electromagnético, pues aumentan la "rugosidad" superficial, mientras que la corriente tiene la misma dirección de la velocidad del viento, lo reduce

Numerical computation of the electromagnetic bias in GNSS-R altimetry

In radar altimetry, the electromagnetic (EM) bias is originated by the smaller reflectivity of wave crests than troughs; thus, the average sea surface height is underestimated. Bias uncertainty is currently the largest factor in altimetry error budgets. The EM bias in a bistatic forward-scattering configuration at L-band, such as in Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R) altimetry, remains one of the major sources of uncertainty in the altimetry error budget. In this paper, the EM bias is computed using numerical simulations. To do so, a time-dependent synthetic non-Gaussian sea surface is created using the Pierson-Moskowitz and Elfouhaily sea surface height spectra and spreading function. The sea surface is then discretized in facets andPeer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

Contributions to GNSS-R earth remote sensing from nano-satellites

Premi extraordinari doctorat UPC curs 2015-2016, àmbit de CiènciesGlobal Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R) is a multi-static radar using navigation signals as signals of opportunity. It provides wide-swath and improved spatio-temporal sampling over current space-borne missions. The lack of experimental datasets from space covering signals from multiple constellations (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou) at dual-band (L1 and L2) and dual-polarization (Right Hand Left Hand Circular Polarization: RHCP and LHCP), over the ocean, land and cryosphere remains a bottleneck to further develop these techniques. 3Cat-2 is a 6 units (3 x 2 elementary blocks of 10 x 10 x 10 cm3) CubeSat mission ayming to explore fundamentals issues towards an improvement in the understanding of the bistatic scattering properties of different targets. Since geolocalization of specific reflections points is determined by the geometry only, a moderate pointing accuracy is still required to correct for the antena pattern in scatterometry measurements. 3Cat-2 launch is foreseen for the first quarter 2016 into a Sun-Synchronous orbit of 510 km height using a Long March II D rocket. This Ph.D. Thesis represents the main contributions to the development of the 3Cat-2 GNSS-R Earth observation mission (6U CubeSat) including a novel type of GNSS-R technique: the reconstructed one. The desing, development of the platform, and a number of ground-based, airborne and stratospheric balloon experiments to validate the technique and to optimize the instrument. In particular, the main contributions of this Ph.D. thesis are: 1) A novel dual-band Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometer that uses the P(Y) and C/A signals scattered over the sea surface to perform highly precise altimetric measurements (PYCARO). 2) The first proof-of-concept of PYCARO was performed during two different ground-based field experiments over a dam and over the sea under different surface roughness conditions. 3) The scattering of GNSS signals over a water surface has been studied when the receiver is at low height, as for GNSS-R coastal altimetry applications. The precise determination of the local sea level and wave state from the coast can provide useful altimetry and wave information as "dry" tide and wave gauges. In order to test this concept an experiment has been conducted at the Canal d'Investigació i Experimentació Marítima (CIEM) wave channel for two synthetic "sea" states. 4) Two ESA-sponsored airborne experiments were perfomed to test the precision and the relative accuracy of the conventional GNSS-R. 5) The empirical results of a GNSS-R experiment on-board the ESA-sponsored BAXUS 17 stratospheric balloon campaign performed North of Sweden over boreal forests showed that the power of the reflected signals is nearly independent of the platform height for a high coherent integration time. 6) An improved version of the PYCARO payload was tested in Octover 2014 for the second time during the ESA-sposored BEXUS-19,. This work achieved the first ever dual-frequency, multi-constellation GNSS-R observations over boreal forests and lakes using GPS, GLONASS and Galileo signals. 7) The first-ever dual-frequency multi-constellation GNSS-R dual-polarization measurements over boreal forests and lakes were obtained from the stratosphere during the BEXUS 19 using the PYCARO reflectometer operated in closed-loop mode.Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R) es una técnica de radar multi-estático que usa señales de radio-navegación como señales de oportunidad. Esta técnica proporciona "wide-swath" y un mejor sampleado espacio-temporal en comparación con las misiones espaciales actuales. La falta de datos desde el espacio proporcionando señales de múltiples constelaciones (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou) en doble banda (L1 y L2) y en doble polarización (RHCP y LHCP) sobre océano, tierra y criosfera continua siendo un problema por solucionar. 3Cat-2 es un cubesat de 6 unidades con el objetivo de explorar elementos fundamentales para mejorar el conocimiento sobre el scattering bi-estático sobre diferentes medios dispersores. Dado que la geolocalización de puntos de reflexión específicos está determinada solo por geometría, es necesario un requisito moderado de apuntamiento para corregir el diagrama de antena en aplicaciones de dispersometría. El lanzamiento del 3Cat-2 será en Q2 2016 en una órbitra heliosíncrona usando un cohete Long March II D. Esta tesis representa las contribuciones principales al desarrollo del satélite 3Cat2 para realizar observación de la tierra con GNSS-R incluyendo una nueva técnica: "the reconstructed-code GNSS-R". El diseño, desarrollo de la plataforma y un número de experimentos en tierra, desde avión y desde globo estratosférico para validar la técnica y optimizar el instrumento han sido realizados. En particular, las contribuciones de esta Ph.D. son: 1) un novedoso Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometer que usa las señales P(Y) y C/A después de ser dispersadas sobre la superficie del mar para realizar medidas altimétricas muy precisas. (PYCARO). 2) La primera prueba de concepto de PYCARO se hizo en dos experimentos sobre un pantano y sobre el mar bajo diferentes condiciones de rugosidad. 3) La disperión de las señales GNSS sobre una superfice de agua ha sido estudiada para bajas altitudes para aplicaciones GNSS-R altimétricas de costa. La determinación precisa del nivel local del mar y el estado de las olas desde la costa puede proporcionar información útil de altimetría e información de olas. Para hacer un test de este concepto un experimento en el Canal d'Investigació i Experimentació Marítima (CIEM) fue realizado para dos estados sintéticos de rugosidad. 4) Dos experimentos en avión con esponsor de la ESA se realizaron para estudiar la preción y la exactitud relativa de cGNSS-R. 5) Los resultados empíricos del experimento GNSS-R en BEXUS 17 con esponsor de la ESA realizado en el norte de Suecia sobre bosques boreales mostró que la potencia reflejada de las señales es independiente de la altitud de la plataforma para un tiempo de integración coherente muy alto. 6) Una versión mejorada del PYCARO fue testeada en octubre del 2014 por segunda vez durante el BEXUS 19 que también fue patrocidado por la ESA. Este trabajo proporcionó las primeras medidas GNSS-R sobre bosques boreales en doble frecuencia usando varias constelaciones GNSS. 7) Las primeras medidas polarimétricas (RHCP y LHCP) de GNSS-R sobre bosques boreales también fueron conseguidas durante el experimento BEXUS 19.Award-winningPostprint (published version

Modeling of Ocean Surface Delay Doppler Maps Measured in S-Band Signal of Opportunity Reflectometry

Signals-of-Opportunity (SoOp) remote sensing of the Earth measures the reflections of existing transmitters from Earth's surface in order to discern information on the Earth's geophysical properties. While the transmissions of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) emitters have been widely used in this application, other sources are also available that can provide distinct advantages. In particular, S-band (i.e. 2.34 GHz) transmissions in the satellite-based digital audio radio service (e.g. the XM and Sirius systems) provide geostationary emissions of relatively higher power and in multiple channels of ~ 2 MHz bandwidth. The reflection of these signals for example from the ocean surface can be used to sense ocean wind speeds and other properties of the sea surface. Measurements of these reflections can be processed to produce Delay Doppler Maps (DDMs) that provide further insight into the scattering process. In this thesis, a model for ocean-reflected DDMs acquired by an airborne receiver developed by Purdue University is developed for comparison with the measurements. Particular emphasis in the comparisons is placed on scattering effects outside the specular region traditionally examined in SoOp sensing by examining portions of the DDMs at significant delay and doppler offsets with respect to the specular point. In addition, the impact of the receive antenna pattern on these portions of the DDM and on the polarization of the received signals is examined. The results show the utility of these measurements for ocean remote sensing, as well as the importance of an accurate model for ocean surface scattering for predicting the results obtained.ElectroScience LaboratoryUndergraduate Research ScholarshipNo embargoAcademic Major: Electrical and Computer Engineerin

Tropospheric delays in ground-based GNSS Multipath Reflectometry – experimental evidence from coastal sites

Recent studies have demonstrated the utility of ground based GNSS Multipath Reflectometry (GNSS-MR) for sea level studies. Typical root-mean-square (RMS) differences of GNSS-MR derived sea level time series with respect to nearby tide gauges are on the order of 6 – 40 cm, sufficiently accurate to estimate tidal and secular sea level variations but are possibly biased due to delay of the signal through the troposphere. In this study we investigate the tropospheric effect from more than 20 GNSS coastal sites located from several meters up to 280 m above sea level. We find a bias in the estimated heights that is elevation and height dependent and can reach orders of 1 m for a 90 m site. Without correcting for tropospheric delay we find that GNSS-MR estimated tidal coefficients will be smaller than their true amplitudes by around 2% while phases seem unaffected. Correcting for the tropospheric delay also improves levelling results as a function of reflector height. Correcting for the tropospheric delay in GNSS-MR for sea level studies is therefore highly recommended for all sites no matter the height of the antenna above the sea surface as it manifests as a scale error

Quantifying the Uncertainty in Ground-Based GNSS-Reflectometry Sea Level Measurements

Global Navigation Satellite System reflectometry (GNSS-R) tide gauges are a promising alternative to traditional tide gauges. However, the precision of GNSS-R sea-level measurements when compared to measurements from a colocated tide gauge is highly variable, with no clear indication of what causes the variability. Here, we present a modeling technique to estimate the precision of GNSS-R sea-level measurements that relies on creating and analyzing synthetic signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) data. The modeled value obtained from the synthetic SNR data is compared to observed root mean square error between GNSS-R measurements and a colocated tide gauge at five sites and using two retrieval methods: spectral analysis and inverse modeling. We find that the inverse method is more precise than the spectral analysis method by up to 60 for individual measurements but the two methods perform similarly for daily and monthly means. We quantify the contribution of dominant effects to the variations in precision and find that noise is the dominant source of uncertainty for spectral analysis whereas the effect of the dynamic sea surface is the dominant source of uncertainty for the inverse method. Additionally, we test the sensitivity of sea-level measurements to the choice of elevation angle interval and find that the spectral analysis method is more sensitive to the choice of elevation angle interval than the inverse method due to the effect of noise, which is greater at larger elevation angle intervals. Conversely, the effect of tropospheric delay increases for lower elevation angle intervals but is generally a minor contribution

Forward and Inverse Modeling of GPS Multipath for Snow Monitoring

Snowpacks provide reservoirs of freshwater, storing solid precipitation and delaying runoff to be released later in the spring and summer when it is most needed. The goal of this dissertation is to develop the technique of GPS multipath reflectometry (GPS-MR) for ground-based measurement of snow depth. The phenomenon of multipath in GPS constitutes the reception of reflected signals in conjunction with the direct signal from a satellite. As these coherent direct and reflected signals go in and out of phase, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exhibits peaks and troughs that can be related to land surface characteristics. In contrast to other GPS reflectometry modes, in GPS-MR the poorly separated composite signal is collected utilizing a single antenna and correlated against a single replica. SNR observations derived from the newer L2-frequency civilian GPS signal (L2C) are used, as recorded by commercial off-the-shelf receivers and geodetic-quality antennas in existing GPS sites. I developed a forward/inverse approach for modeling GPS multipath present in SNR observations. The model here is unique in that it capitalizes on known information about the antenna response and the physics of surface scattering to aid in retrieving the unknown snow conditions in the antenna surroundings. This physically-based forward model is utilized to simulate the surface and antenna coupling. The statistically-rigorous inverse model is considered in two parts. Part I (theory) explains how the snow characteristics are parameterized; the observation/parameter sensitivity; inversion errors; and parameter uncertainty, which serves to indicate the sensing footprint where the reflection originates. Part II (practice) applies the multipath model to SNR observations and validates the resulting GPS retrievals against independent in situ measurements during a 1-3 year period in three different environments - grasslands, alpine, and forested. The assessment yields a correlation of 0.98 and an RMS error of 6-8 cm, with the GPS under-estimating in situ snow depth by approximately 15%. GPS daily site averages were found effective in mitigating random noise without unduly smoothing the sharp transitions as captured in new snow events. This work corroborates the readiness of quality-controlled GPS-MR for snow depth monitoring, reinforcing its maturity for operational usage

Comparison of sea-ice freeboard distributions from aircraft data and cryosat-2

The only remote sensing technique capable of obtain- ing sea-ice thickness on basin-scale are satellite altime- ter missions, such as the 2010 launched CryoSat-2. It is equipped with a Ku-Band radar altimeter, which mea- sures the height of the ice surface above the sea level. This method requires highly accurate range measure- ments. During the CryoSat Validation Experiment (Cry- oVEx) 2011 in the Lincoln Sea, Cryosat-2 underpasses were accomplished with two aircraft, which carried an airborne laser-scanner, a radar altimeter and an electro- magnetic induction device for direct sea-ice thickness re- trieval. Both aircraft flew in close formation at the same time of a CryoSat-2 overpass. This is a study about the comparison of the sea-ice freeboard and thickness dis- tribution of airborne validation and CryoSat-2 measure- ments within the multi-year sea-ice region of the Lincoln Sea in spring, with respect to the penetration of the Ku- Band signal into the snow