231 research outputs found

    Satellite-based characterization of climatic conditions before large-scale general flowering events in Peninsular Malaysia

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    General flowering (GF) is a unique phenomenon wherein, at irregular intervals, taxonomically diverse trees in Southeast Asian dipterocarp forests synchronize their reproduction at the community level. Triggers of GF, including drought and low minimum temperatures a few months previously has been limitedly observed across large regional scales due to lack of meteorological stations. Here, we aim to identify the climatic conditions that trigger large-scale GF in Peninsular Malaysia using satellite sensors, Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), to evaluate the climatic conditions of focal forests. We observed antecedent drought, low temperature and high photosynthetic radiation conditions before large-scale GF events, suggesting that large-scale GF events could be triggered by these factors. In contrast, we found higher-magnitude GF in forests where lower precipitation preceded large-scale GF events. GF magnitude was also negatively influenced by land surface temperature (LST) for a large-scale GF event. Therefore, we suggest that spatial extent of drought may be related to that of GF forests, and that the spatial pattern of LST may be related to that of GF occurrence. With significant new findings and other results that were consistent with previous research we clarified complicated environmental correlates with the GF phenomenon

    Inconsistencies of interannual variability and trends in long-term satellite leaf area index products

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    Understanding the long-term performance of global satellite leaf area index (LAI) products is important for global change research. However, few effort has been devoted to evaluating the long-term time-series consistencies of LAI products. This study compared four long-term LAI products (GLASS, GLOBMAP, LAI3g, and TCDR) in terms of trends, interannual variabilities, and uncertainty variations from 1982 through 2011. This study also used four ancillary LAI products (GEOV1, MERIS, MODIS C5, and MODIS C6) from 2003 through 2011 to help clarify the performances of the four long-term LAI products. In general, there were marked discrepancies between the four long-term LAI products. During the pre-MODIS period (1982-1999), both linear trends and interannual variabilities of global mean LAI followed the order GLASS>LAI3g>TCDR>GLOBMAP. The GLASS linear trend and interannual variability were almost 4.5 times those of GLOBMAP. During the overlap period (2003-2011), GLASS and GLOBMAP exhibited a decreasing trend, TCDR no trend, and LAI3g an increasing trend. GEOV1, MERIS, and MODIS C6 also exhibited an increasing trend, but to a much smaller extent than that from LAI3g. During both periods, the R2 of detrended anomalies between the four long-term LAI products was smaller than 0.4 for most regions. Interannual variabilities of the four long-term LAI products were considerably different over the two periods, and the differences followed the order GLASS>LAI3g>TCDR>GLOBMAP. Uncertainty variations quantified by a collocation error model followed the same order. Our results indicate that the four long-term LAI products were neither intraconsistent over time nor interconsistent with each other. These inconsistencies may be due to NOAA satellite orbit changes and MODIS sensor degradation. Caution should be used in the interpretation of global changes derived from the four long-term LAI products

    Remote Sensing of Biophysical Parameters

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    Vegetation plays an essential role in the study of the environment through plant respiration and photosynthesis. Therefore, the assessment of the current vegetation status is critical to modeling terrestrial ecosystems and energy cycles. Canopy structure (LAI, fCover, plant height, biomass, leaf angle distribution) and biochemical parameters (leaf pigmentation and water content) have been employed to assess vegetation status and its dynamics at scales ranging from kilometric to decametric spatial resolutions thanks to methods based on remote sensing (RS) data.Optical RS retrieval methods are based on the radiative transfer processes of sunlight in vegetation, determining the amount of radiation that is measured by passive sensors in the visible and infrared channels. The increased availability of active RS (radar and LiDAR) data has fostered their use in many applications for the analysis of land surface properties and processes, thanks to their insensitivity to weather conditions and the ability to exploit rich structural and texture information. Optical and radar data fusion and multi-sensor integration approaches are pressing topics, which could fully exploit the information conveyed by both the optical and microwave parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.This Special Issue reprint reviews the state of the art in biophysical parameters retrieval and its usage in a wide variety of applications (e.g., ecology, carbon cycle, agriculture, forestry and food security)

    Assessing uncertainties of in situ FAPAR measurements across different forest ecosystems

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    Carbon balances are important for understanding global climate change. Assessing such balances on a local scale depends on accurate measurements of material flows to calculate the productivity of the ecosystem. The productivity of the Earth's biosphere, in turn, depends on the ability of plants to absorb sunlight and assimilate biomass. Over the past decades, numerous Earth observation missions from satellites have created new opportunities to derive so-called “essential climate variables” (ECVs), including important variables of the terrestrial biosphere, that can be used to assess the productivity of our Earth's system. One of these ECVs is the “fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation” (FAPAR) which is needed to calculate the global carbon balance. FAPAR relates the available photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the wavelength range between 400 and 700 nm to the absorption of plants and thus quantifies the status and temporal development of vegetation. In order to ensure accurate datasets of global FAPAR, the UN/WMO institution “Global Climate Observing System” (GCOS) declared an accuracy target of 10% (or 0.05) as acceptable for FAPAR products. Since current satellite derived FAPAR products still fail to meet this accuracy target, especially in forest ecosystems, in situ FAPAR measurements are needed to validate FAPAR products and improve them in the future. However, it is known that in situ FAPAR measurements can be affected by significant systematic as well as statistical errors (i.e., “bias”) depending on the choice of measurement method and prevailing environmental conditions. So far, uncertainties of in situ FAPAR have been reproduced theoretically in simulations with radiation transfer models (RTMs), but the findings have been validated neither in field experiments nor in different forest ecosystems. However, an uncertainty assessment of FAPAR in field experiments is essential to develop practicable measurement protocols. This work investigates the accuracy of in situ FAPAR measurements and sources of uncertainties based on multi-year, 10-minute PAR measurements with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) at three sites on three continents to represent different forest ecosystems: a mixed spruce forest at the site “Graswang” in Southern Germany, a boreal deciduous forest at the site “Peace River” in Northern Alberta, Canada and a tropical dry forest (TDF) at the site “Santa Rosa”, Costa Rica. The main statements of the research results achieved in this thesis are briefly summarized below: Uncertainties of instantaneous FAPAR in forest ecosystems can be assessed with Wireless Sensor Networks and additional meteorological and phenological observations. In this thesis, two methods for a FAPAR bias assessment have been developed. First, for assessing the bias of the so-called two-flux FAPAR estimate, the difference between FAPAR acquired under diffuse light conditions and two-flux FAPAR acquired during clear-sky conditions can be investigated. Therefore, measurements of incoming and transmitted PAR are required to calculate the two-flux FAPAR estimate as well as observations of the ratio of diffuse-to-total incident radiation. Second, to assess the bias of not only the two- but also the three-flux FAPAR estimate, four-flux FAPAR observations must be carried out, i.e. measurements of top-of-canopy (TOC) PAR albedo and PAR albedo of the forest background. Then, to quantify the bias of the two and three-flux estimate, the difference with the four-flux estimate can be calculated. Main sources of uncertainty of in situ FAPAR measurements are high solar zenith angle, occurrence of colored leaves and increased wind speed. At all sites, FAPAR observations exhibited considerable seasonal variability due to the phenological development of the forests (Graswang: 0.89 to 0.99 ±0.02; Peace River: 0.55 to 0.87 ±0.03; Santa Rosa: 0.45 to 0.97 ±0.06). Under certain environmental conditions, FAPAR was affected by systemic errors, i.e. bias that go beyond phenologically explainable fluctuations. The in situ observations confirmed a significant overestimation of FAPAR by up to 0.06 at solar zenith angles above 60° and by up to 0.05 under the occurrence of colored leaves of deciduous trees. The results confirm theoretical findings from radiation transfer simulations, which could now for the first time be quantified under field conditions. As a new finding, the influence of wind speed could be shown, which was particularly evident at the boreal location with a significant bias of FAPAR values at wind speeds above 5 ms-1. The uncertainties of the two-flux FAPAR estimate are acceptable under typical summer conditions. Three-flux or four-flux FAPAR measurements do not necessarily increase the accuracy of the estimate. The highest average relative bias of different FAPAR estimates were 2.1% in Graswang, 8.4% in Peace River and -4.5% in Santa Rosa. Thus, the GCOS accuracy threshold of 10% set by the GCOS was generally not exceeded. The two-flux FAPAR estimate was only found to be biased during high wind speeds, as changes in the TOC PAR albedo are not considered in two-flux FAPAR measurements. Under typical summer conditions, i.e. low wind speed, small solar zenith angle and green leaves, two-flux FAPAR measurements can be recommended for the validation of satellite-based FAPAR products. Based on the results obtained, it must be emphasized that the three-flux FAPAR estimate, which has often been preferred in previous studies, is not necessarily more accurate, which was particularly evident in the tropical location. The discrepancies between ground measurements and the current Sentinel-2 FAPAR product still largely exceed the GCOS target accuracy at the respective study sites, even when considering uncertainties of FAPAR ground measurements. It was found that the Sentinel-2 (S2) FAPAR product systematically underestimated the ground observations at all three study sites (i.e. negative values for the mean relative bias in percent). The highest agreement was observed at the boreal site Peace River with a mean relative deviation of -13% (RÂČ=0.67). At Graswang and Santa Rosa, the mean relative deviations were -20% (RÂČ=0.68) and -25% (RÂČ=0.26), respectively. It was argued that these high discrepancies resulted from both the generic nature of the algorithm and the higher ecosystem complexity of the sites Graswang and Santa Rosa. It was also found that the temporal aggregation method of FAPAR ground data should be well considered for comparison with the S2 FAPAR product, which refers to daily averages, as overestimation of FAPAR during high solar zenith angles could distort validation results. However, considering uncertainties of ground measurements, the S2 FAPAR product met the GCOS accuracy requirements only at the boreal study site. Overall, it has been shown that the S2 FAPAR product is already well suited to assess the temporal variability of FAPAR, but due to the low accuracy of the absolute values, the possibilities to feed global production efficiency models and evaluate global carbon balances are currently limited. The accuracy of satellite derived FAPAR depends on the complexity of the observed forest ecosystem. The highest agreement between satellite derived FAPAR product and ground measurements, both in terms of absolute values and spatial variability, was achieved at the boreal site, where the complexity of the ecosystem is lowest considering forest structure variables and species richness. These results have been elaborated and presented in three publications that are at the center of this cumulative thesis. In sum, this work closes a knowledge gap by displaying the interplay of different environmental conditions on the accuracy of situ FAPAR measurements. Since the uncertainties of FAPAR are now quantifiable under field conditions, they should also be considered in future validation studies. In this context, the practical recommendations for the implementation of ground observations given in this thesis can be used to prepare sampling protocols, which are urgently needed to validate and improve global satellite derived FAPAR observations in the future.Projektionen zukĂŒnftiger Kohlenstoffbilanzen sind wichtig fĂŒr das VerstĂ€ndnis des globalen Klimawandels und sind auf genaue Messungen von StoffflĂŒssen zur Berechnung der ProduktivitĂ€t des Erdökosystems angewiesen. Die ProduktivitĂ€t der BiosphĂ€re unserer Erde wiederum ist abhĂ€ngig von der Eigenschaft von Pflanzen, Sonnenlicht zu absorbieren und Biomasse zu assimilieren. Über die letzten Jahrzehnte haben zahlreiche Erdbeobachtungsmissionen von Satelliten neue Möglichkeiten geschaffen, sogenannte „essentielle Klimavariablen“ (ECVs), darunter auch wichtige Variablen der terrestrischen BiosphĂ€re, aus Satellitendaten abzuleiten, mit deren Hilfe man die ProduktivitĂ€t unseres Erdsystems computergestĂŒtzt berechnen kann. Eine dieser „essenziellen Klimavariablen“ ist der Anteil der absorbierten photosynthetisch aktiven Strahlung (FAPAR) die man zur Berechnung der globalen Kohlenstoffbilanz benötigt. FAPAR bezieht die verfĂŒgbare photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung (PAR) im WellenlĂ€ngenbereich zwischen 400 und 700 nm auf die Absorption von Pflanzen und quantifiziert somit Status und die zeitliche Entwicklung von Vegetation. Um möglichst prĂ€zise Informationen aus dem globalen FAPAR zu gewĂ€hrleisten, erklĂ€rte die UN/WMO-Institution zur globalen Klimabeobachtung, das “Global Climate Observing System“ (GCOS), ein Genauigkeitsziel von 10% (bzw. 0.05) FAPAR-Produkte als akzeptabel. Da aktuell satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Produkte dieses Genauigkeitsziel besonders in Waldökosystemen immer noch verfehlen, werden dringen in situ FAPAR-Messungen benötigt, um die FAPAR-Produkte validieren und in Zukunft verbessern zu können. Man weiß jedoch, dass je nach Auswahl des Messsystems und vorherrschenden Umweltbedingungen in situ FAPAR-Messungen mit erheblichen sowohl systematischen als auch statistischen Fehlern beeinflusst sein können. Bisher wurden diese Fehler in Simulationen mit Strahlungstransfermodellen zwar theoretisch nachvollzogen, aber die dadurch abgeleiteten Befunde sind bisher weder in Feldversuchen noch in unterschiedlichen Waldökosystemen validiert worden. Eine UnsicherheitsabschĂ€tzung von FAPAR im Feldversuch ist allerdings essenziell, um praxistaugliche Messprotokolle entwickeln zu können. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Genauigkeit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen und Ursachen von Unsicherheit basierend auf mehrjĂ€hrigen, 10-minĂŒtigen PAR-Messungen mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken (WSNs) an drei verschiedenen Waldstandorten auf drei Kontinenten: der Standort „Graswang“ in SĂŒddeutschland mit einem Fichten-Mischwald, der Standort „Peace River“ in Nord-Alberta, Kanada mit einem borealen Laubwald und der Standort „Santa Rosa“, Costa Rica mit einem tropischen Trockenwald. Die Hauptaussagen der in dieser Arbeit erzielten Forschungsergebnisse werden im Folgenden kurz zusammengefasst: Unsicherheiten von FAPAR in Waldökosystemen können mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken und zusĂ€tzlichen meteorologischen und phĂ€nologischen Beobachtungen quantifiziert werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Methoden fĂŒr die Bewertung von Unsicherheiten entwickelt. Erstens, um den systematischen Fehler der sogenannten „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, kann die Differenz zwischen FAPAR, das unter diffusen LichtverhĂ€ltnissen aufgenommen wurde, und FAPAR, das unter klaren Himmelsbedingungen aufgenommen wurde, untersucht werden. FĂŒr diese Methode sind Messungen des einfallenden und transmittierten PAR sowie Beobachtungen des VerhĂ€ltnisses von diffuser zur gesamten einfallenden Strahlung erforderlich. Zweitens, um den systematischen Fehler nicht nur der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, sondern auch der „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, mĂŒssen „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen durchgefĂŒhrt werden, d.h. zusĂ€tzlich Messungen der PAR Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs sowie des Waldbodens. Zur Quantifizierung des Fehlers der „two-flux“ und „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung kann die Differenz zur „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messung herangezogen werden. Die Hauptquellen fĂŒr die Unsicherheit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen sind ein hoher Sonnenzenitwinkel, BlattfĂ€rbung und erhöhte Windgeschwindigkeit. An allen drei Untersuchungsstandorten zeigten die FAPAR-Beobachtungen natĂŒrliche saisonale Schwankungen aufgrund der phĂ€nologischen Entwicklung der WĂ€lder (Graswang: 0,89 bis 0,99 ±0,02; Peace River: 0,55 bis 0,87 ±0,03; Santa Rosa: 0,45 bis 0,97 ±0,06). Unter bestimmten Umweltbedingungen war FAPAR von systematischen Fehlern, d.h. Verzerrungen betroffen, die ĂŒber phĂ€nologisch erklĂ€rbare Schwankungen hinausgehen. So bestĂ€tigten die in situ Beobachtungen eine signifikante ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR um bis zu 0,06 bei Sonnenzenitwinkeln von ĂŒber 60° und um bis zu 0,05 bei Vorkommen gefĂ€rbter BlĂ€tter der LaubbĂ€ume. Die Ergebnisse bestĂ€tigen theoretische Erkenntnisse aus Strahlungstransfersimulationen, die nun erstmalig unter Feldbedingungen quantifiziert werden konnten. Als eine neue Erkenntnis konnte der Einfluss der Windgeschwindigkeit gezeigt werden, der sich besonders am borealen Standort mit einer signifikanten Verzerrung der FAPAR-Werte bei Windgeschwindigkeiten ĂŒber 5 ms-1 Ă€ußerte. Die Unsicherheiten der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung sind unter typischen Sommerbedingungen akzeptabel. „Three-flux“ oder „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen erhöhen nicht unbedingt die Genauigkeit der AbschĂ€tzung. Die höchsten durchschnittlichen relativen systematischen Fehler verschiedener Methoden zur FAPAR-Messung betrugen 2,1% in Graswang, 8,4% in Peace River und -4,5% in Santa Rosa. Damit wurde der durch GCOS festgelegte Genauigkeitsschwellenwert von 10% im Allgemeinen nicht ĂŒberschritten. Die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung wurde nur als fehleranfĂ€llig bei hohe Windgeschwindigkeiten befunden, da Änderungen der PAR-Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs bei der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung nicht berĂŒcksichtigt werden. Unter typischen Sommerbedingungen, also geringe Windgeschwindigkeit, kleiner Sonnenzenitwinkel und grĂŒne BlĂ€tter, kann die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung fĂŒr die Validierung von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten empfohlen werden. Auf Basis der gewonnenen Ergebnisse muss betont werden, dass die „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, die in bisherigen Studien hĂ€ufig bevorzugt wurde, nicht unbedingt weniger fehlerbehaftet sind, was sich insbesondere am tropischen Standort zeigte. Die Abweichungen zwischen Bodenmessungen und dem aktuellen Sentinel-2 FAPAR-Produkt ĂŒberschreiten auch unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in der Messmethodik immer noch weitgehend die GCOS-Zielgenauigkeit an den jeweiligen Untersuchungsstandorten. So zeigte sich, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt die Bodenbeobachtungen an allen drei Studienstandorten systematisch unterschĂ€tzte (d.h. negative Werte fĂŒr die mittlere relative Abweichung in Prozent). Die höchste Übereinstimmung wurde am borealen Standort Peace River mit einer mittleren relativen Abweichung von -13% (RÂČ=0,67) beobachtet. An den Standorten Graswang und Santa Rosa betrugen die mittleren relativen Abweichungen jeweils -20% (RÂČ=0,68) bzw. -25% (RÂČ=0,26). Es wurde argumentiert, dass diese hohen Abweichungen auf eine Kombination sowohl des generisch ausgerichteten Algorithmus als auch der höheren KomplexitĂ€t beider Ökosysteme zurĂŒckgefĂŒhrt werden können. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die zeitlichen Aggregierung der FAPAR-Bodendaten zum Vergleich mit S2 FAPAR-Produkt, das sich auf Tagesmittelwerte bezieht, gut ĂŒberlegt sein sollte, da die ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR wĂ€hrend eines hohen Sonnenzenitwinkels in den Bodendaten die Validierungsergebnisse verzerren kann. Unter BerĂŒcksichtigung der Unsicherheiten der Bodendaten erfĂŒllte das S2 FAPAR Produkt jedoch nur am boreale Untersuchungsstandort die Genauigkeitsanforderungen des GCOS. Insgesamt hat sich gezeigt, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt bereits gut zur Beurteilung der zeitlichen VariabilitĂ€t von FAPAR geeignet ist, aber aufgrund der geringen Genauigkeit der absoluten Werte sind die Möglichkeiten, globale Produktionseffizienzmodelle zu speisen und globale Kohlenstoffbilanzen zu bewerten, derzeit begrenzt. Die Genauigkeit von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten ist abhĂ€ngig von der KomplexitĂ€t des beobachteten Waldökosystems. Die höchste Übereinstimmung zwischen satellitengestĂŒtztem FAPAR und Bodenmessungen, sowohl hinsichtlich der Darstellung von absolutem Werten als auch der rĂ€umlichen VariabilitĂ€t, wurde am borealen Standort erzielt, fĂŒr den die KomplexitĂ€t des Ökosystems unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Waldstrukturvariablen und Artenreichtum am geringsten ausfĂ€llt. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse wurden in drei Publikationen dieser kumulativen Arbeit erarbeitet. Insgesamt schließt diese Arbeit eine WissenslĂŒcke in der Darstellung des Zusammenspiels verschiedener Umgebungsbedingungen auf die Genauigkeit von situ FAPAR-Messungen. Da die Unsicherheiten von FAPAR nun unter Feldbedingungen quantifizierbar sind, sollten sie in zukĂŒnftigen Validierungsstudien auch berĂŒcksichtigt werden. In diesem Zusammenhang können die in dieser Arbeit genannten praktische Empfehlungen fĂŒr die DurchfĂŒhrung von Bodenbeobachtungen zur Erstellung von Messprotokollen herangezogen werden, die dringend erforderlich sind, um globale satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Beobachten validieren und zukĂŒnftig verbessern zu können

    Development and Extrapolation of a General Light Use Efficiency Model for the Gross Primary Production

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    The global carbon cycle is one of the large biogeochemical cycles spanning all living and non-living compartments of the Earth system. Against the background of accelerating global change, the scientific community is highly interested in analyzing and understanding the dynamics of the global carbon cycle and its complex feedback mechanism with the terrestrial biosphere. The international network FLUXNET was established to serve this aim with measurement towers around the globe. The overarching objective of this thesis is to exploit the powerful combination of carbon flux measurements and satellite remote sensing in order to develop a simple but robust model for the gross primary production (GPP) of vegetation stands. Measurement data from FLUXNET sites as well as remote sensing data from the NASA sensor MODIS are exploited in a data-based model development approach. The well-established concept of light use efficiency is chosen as modeling framework. As a result, a novel gross primary production model is established to quantify the carbon uptake of forests and grasslands across a broad range of climate zones. Furthermore, an extrapolation scheme is derived, with which the model parameters calibrated at FLUXNET sites can be regionalized to pave the way for spatially continuous model applications

    Assessing uncertainties of in situ FAPAR measurements across different forest ecosystems

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    Carbon balances are important for understanding global climate change. Assessing such balances on a local scale depends on accurate measurements of material flows to calculate the productivity of the ecosystem. The productivity of the Earth's biosphere, in turn, depends on the ability of plants to absorb sunlight and assimilate biomass. Over the past decades, numerous Earth observation missions from satellites have created new opportunities to derive so-called “essential climate variables” (ECVs), including important variables of the terrestrial biosphere, that can be used to assess the productivity of our Earth's system. One of these ECVs is the “fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation” (FAPAR) which is needed to calculate the global carbon balance. FAPAR relates the available photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the wavelength range between 400 and 700 nm to the absorption of plants and thus quantifies the status and temporal development of vegetation. In order to ensure accurate datasets of global FAPAR, the UN/WMO institution “Global Climate Observing System” (GCOS) declared an accuracy target of 10% (or 0.05) as acceptable for FAPAR products. Since current satellite derived FAPAR products still fail to meet this accuracy target, especially in forest ecosystems, in situ FAPAR measurements are needed to validate FAPAR products and improve them in the future. However, it is known that in situ FAPAR measurements can be affected by significant systematic as well as statistical errors (i.e., “bias”) depending on the choice of measurement method and prevailing environmental conditions. So far, uncertainties of in situ FAPAR have been reproduced theoretically in simulations with radiation transfer models (RTMs), but the findings have been validated neither in field experiments nor in different forest ecosystems. However, an uncertainty assessment of FAPAR in field experiments is essential to develop practicable measurement protocols. This work investigates the accuracy of in situ FAPAR measurements and sources of uncertainties based on multi-year, 10-minute PAR measurements with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) at three sites on three continents to represent different forest ecosystems: a mixed spruce forest at the site “Graswang” in Southern Germany, a boreal deciduous forest at the site “Peace River” in Northern Alberta, Canada and a tropical dry forest (TDF) at the site “Santa Rosa”, Costa Rica. The main statements of the research results achieved in this thesis are briefly summarized below: Uncertainties of instantaneous FAPAR in forest ecosystems can be assessed with Wireless Sensor Networks and additional meteorological and phenological observations. In this thesis, two methods for a FAPAR bias assessment have been developed. First, for assessing the bias of the so-called two-flux FAPAR estimate, the difference between FAPAR acquired under diffuse light conditions and two-flux FAPAR acquired during clear-sky conditions can be investigated. Therefore, measurements of incoming and transmitted PAR are required to calculate the two-flux FAPAR estimate as well as observations of the ratio of diffuse-to-total incident radiation. Second, to assess the bias of not only the two- but also the three-flux FAPAR estimate, four-flux FAPAR observations must be carried out, i.e. measurements of top-of-canopy (TOC) PAR albedo and PAR albedo of the forest background. Then, to quantify the bias of the two and three-flux estimate, the difference with the four-flux estimate can be calculated. Main sources of uncertainty of in situ FAPAR measurements are high solar zenith angle, occurrence of colored leaves and increased wind speed. At all sites, FAPAR observations exhibited considerable seasonal variability due to the phenological development of the forests (Graswang: 0.89 to 0.99 ±0.02; Peace River: 0.55 to 0.87 ±0.03; Santa Rosa: 0.45 to 0.97 ±0.06). Under certain environmental conditions, FAPAR was affected by systemic errors, i.e. bias that go beyond phenologically explainable fluctuations. The in situ observations confirmed a significant overestimation of FAPAR by up to 0.06 at solar zenith angles above 60° and by up to 0.05 under the occurrence of colored leaves of deciduous trees. The results confirm theoretical findings from radiation transfer simulations, which could now for the first time be quantified under field conditions. As a new finding, the influence of wind speed could be shown, which was particularly evident at the boreal location with a significant bias of FAPAR values at wind speeds above 5 ms-1. The uncertainties of the two-flux FAPAR estimate are acceptable under typical summer conditions. Three-flux or four-flux FAPAR measurements do not necessarily increase the accuracy of the estimate. The highest average relative bias of different FAPAR estimates were 2.1% in Graswang, 8.4% in Peace River and -4.5% in Santa Rosa. Thus, the GCOS accuracy threshold of 10% set by the GCOS was generally not exceeded. The two-flux FAPAR estimate was only found to be biased during high wind speeds, as changes in the TOC PAR albedo are not considered in two-flux FAPAR measurements. Under typical summer conditions, i.e. low wind speed, small solar zenith angle and green leaves, two-flux FAPAR measurements can be recommended for the validation of satellite-based FAPAR products. Based on the results obtained, it must be emphasized that the three-flux FAPAR estimate, which has often been preferred in previous studies, is not necessarily more accurate, which was particularly evident in the tropical location. The discrepancies between ground measurements and the current Sentinel-2 FAPAR product still largely exceed the GCOS target accuracy at the respective study sites, even when considering uncertainties of FAPAR ground measurements. It was found that the Sentinel-2 (S2) FAPAR product systematically underestimated the ground observations at all three study sites (i.e. negative values for the mean relative bias in percent). The highest agreement was observed at the boreal site Peace River with a mean relative deviation of -13% (RÂČ=0.67). At Graswang and Santa Rosa, the mean relative deviations were -20% (RÂČ=0.68) and -25% (RÂČ=0.26), respectively. It was argued that these high discrepancies resulted from both the generic nature of the algorithm and the higher ecosystem complexity of the sites Graswang and Santa Rosa. It was also found that the temporal aggregation method of FAPAR ground data should be well considered for comparison with the S2 FAPAR product, which refers to daily averages, as overestimation of FAPAR during high solar zenith angles could distort validation results. However, considering uncertainties of ground measurements, the S2 FAPAR product met the GCOS accuracy requirements only at the boreal study site. Overall, it has been shown that the S2 FAPAR product is already well suited to assess the temporal variability of FAPAR, but due to the low accuracy of the absolute values, the possibilities to feed global production efficiency models and evaluate global carbon balances are currently limited. The accuracy of satellite derived FAPAR depends on the complexity of the observed forest ecosystem. The highest agreement between satellite derived FAPAR product and ground measurements, both in terms of absolute values and spatial variability, was achieved at the boreal site, where the complexity of the ecosystem is lowest considering forest structure variables and species richness. These results have been elaborated and presented in three publications that are at the center of this cumulative thesis. In sum, this work closes a knowledge gap by displaying the interplay of different environmental conditions on the accuracy of situ FAPAR measurements. Since the uncertainties of FAPAR are now quantifiable under field conditions, they should also be considered in future validation studies. In this context, the practical recommendations for the implementation of ground observations given in this thesis can be used to prepare sampling protocols, which are urgently needed to validate and improve global satellite derived FAPAR observations in the future.Projektionen zukĂŒnftiger Kohlenstoffbilanzen sind wichtig fĂŒr das VerstĂ€ndnis des globalen Klimawandels und sind auf genaue Messungen von StoffflĂŒssen zur Berechnung der ProduktivitĂ€t des Erdökosystems angewiesen. Die ProduktivitĂ€t der BiosphĂ€re unserer Erde wiederum ist abhĂ€ngig von der Eigenschaft von Pflanzen, Sonnenlicht zu absorbieren und Biomasse zu assimilieren. Über die letzten Jahrzehnte haben zahlreiche Erdbeobachtungsmissionen von Satelliten neue Möglichkeiten geschaffen, sogenannte „essentielle Klimavariablen“ (ECVs), darunter auch wichtige Variablen der terrestrischen BiosphĂ€re, aus Satellitendaten abzuleiten, mit deren Hilfe man die ProduktivitĂ€t unseres Erdsystems computergestĂŒtzt berechnen kann. Eine dieser „essenziellen Klimavariablen“ ist der Anteil der absorbierten photosynthetisch aktiven Strahlung (FAPAR) die man zur Berechnung der globalen Kohlenstoffbilanz benötigt. FAPAR bezieht die verfĂŒgbare photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung (PAR) im WellenlĂ€ngenbereich zwischen 400 und 700 nm auf die Absorption von Pflanzen und quantifiziert somit Status und die zeitliche Entwicklung von Vegetation. Um möglichst prĂ€zise Informationen aus dem globalen FAPAR zu gewĂ€hrleisten, erklĂ€rte die UN/WMO-Institution zur globalen Klimabeobachtung, das “Global Climate Observing System“ (GCOS), ein Genauigkeitsziel von 10% (bzw. 0.05) FAPAR-Produkte als akzeptabel. Da aktuell satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Produkte dieses Genauigkeitsziel besonders in Waldökosystemen immer noch verfehlen, werden dringen in situ FAPAR-Messungen benötigt, um die FAPAR-Produkte validieren und in Zukunft verbessern zu können. Man weiß jedoch, dass je nach Auswahl des Messsystems und vorherrschenden Umweltbedingungen in situ FAPAR-Messungen mit erheblichen sowohl systematischen als auch statistischen Fehlern beeinflusst sein können. Bisher wurden diese Fehler in Simulationen mit Strahlungstransfermodellen zwar theoretisch nachvollzogen, aber die dadurch abgeleiteten Befunde sind bisher weder in Feldversuchen noch in unterschiedlichen Waldökosystemen validiert worden. Eine UnsicherheitsabschĂ€tzung von FAPAR im Feldversuch ist allerdings essenziell, um praxistaugliche Messprotokolle entwickeln zu können. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Genauigkeit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen und Ursachen von Unsicherheit basierend auf mehrjĂ€hrigen, 10-minĂŒtigen PAR-Messungen mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken (WSNs) an drei verschiedenen Waldstandorten auf drei Kontinenten: der Standort „Graswang“ in SĂŒddeutschland mit einem Fichten-Mischwald, der Standort „Peace River“ in Nord-Alberta, Kanada mit einem borealen Laubwald und der Standort „Santa Rosa“, Costa Rica mit einem tropischen Trockenwald. Die Hauptaussagen der in dieser Arbeit erzielten Forschungsergebnisse werden im Folgenden kurz zusammengefasst: Unsicherheiten von FAPAR in Waldökosystemen können mit drahtlosen Sensornetzwerken und zusĂ€tzlichen meteorologischen und phĂ€nologischen Beobachtungen quantifiziert werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden zwei Methoden fĂŒr die Bewertung von Unsicherheiten entwickelt. Erstens, um den systematischen Fehler der sogenannten „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, kann die Differenz zwischen FAPAR, das unter diffusen LichtverhĂ€ltnissen aufgenommen wurde, und FAPAR, das unter klaren Himmelsbedingungen aufgenommen wurde, untersucht werden. FĂŒr diese Methode sind Messungen des einfallenden und transmittierten PAR sowie Beobachtungen des VerhĂ€ltnisses von diffuser zur gesamten einfallenden Strahlung erforderlich. Zweitens, um den systematischen Fehler nicht nur der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, sondern auch der „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung zu beurteilen, mĂŒssen „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen durchgefĂŒhrt werden, d.h. zusĂ€tzlich Messungen der PAR Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs sowie des Waldbodens. Zur Quantifizierung des Fehlers der „two-flux“ und „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung kann die Differenz zur „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messung herangezogen werden. Die Hauptquellen fĂŒr die Unsicherheit von in situ FAPAR-Messungen sind ein hoher Sonnenzenitwinkel, BlattfĂ€rbung und erhöhte Windgeschwindigkeit. An allen drei Untersuchungsstandorten zeigten die FAPAR-Beobachtungen natĂŒrliche saisonale Schwankungen aufgrund der phĂ€nologischen Entwicklung der WĂ€lder (Graswang: 0,89 bis 0,99 ±0,02; Peace River: 0,55 bis 0,87 ±0,03; Santa Rosa: 0,45 bis 0,97 ±0,06). Unter bestimmten Umweltbedingungen war FAPAR von systematischen Fehlern, d.h. Verzerrungen betroffen, die ĂŒber phĂ€nologisch erklĂ€rbare Schwankungen hinausgehen. So bestĂ€tigten die in situ Beobachtungen eine signifikante ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR um bis zu 0,06 bei Sonnenzenitwinkeln von ĂŒber 60° und um bis zu 0,05 bei Vorkommen gefĂ€rbter BlĂ€tter der LaubbĂ€ume. Die Ergebnisse bestĂ€tigen theoretische Erkenntnisse aus Strahlungstransfersimulationen, die nun erstmalig unter Feldbedingungen quantifiziert werden konnten. Als eine neue Erkenntnis konnte der Einfluss der Windgeschwindigkeit gezeigt werden, der sich besonders am borealen Standort mit einer signifikanten Verzerrung der FAPAR-Werte bei Windgeschwindigkeiten ĂŒber 5 ms-1 Ă€ußerte. Die Unsicherheiten der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung sind unter typischen Sommerbedingungen akzeptabel. „Three-flux“ oder „four-flux“ FAPAR-Messungen erhöhen nicht unbedingt die Genauigkeit der AbschĂ€tzung. Die höchsten durchschnittlichen relativen systematischen Fehler verschiedener Methoden zur FAPAR-Messung betrugen 2,1% in Graswang, 8,4% in Peace River und -4,5% in Santa Rosa. Damit wurde der durch GCOS festgelegte Genauigkeitsschwellenwert von 10% im Allgemeinen nicht ĂŒberschritten. Die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung wurde nur als fehleranfĂ€llig bei hohe Windgeschwindigkeiten befunden, da Änderungen der PAR-Albedo des BlĂ€tterdachs bei der „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung nicht berĂŒcksichtigt werden. Unter typischen Sommerbedingungen, also geringe Windgeschwindigkeit, kleiner Sonnenzenitwinkel und grĂŒne BlĂ€tter, kann die „two-flux“ FAPAR-Messung fĂŒr die Validierung von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten empfohlen werden. Auf Basis der gewonnenen Ergebnisse muss betont werden, dass die „three-flux“ FAPAR-Messung, die in bisherigen Studien hĂ€ufig bevorzugt wurde, nicht unbedingt weniger fehlerbehaftet sind, was sich insbesondere am tropischen Standort zeigte. Die Abweichungen zwischen Bodenmessungen und dem aktuellen Sentinel-2 FAPAR-Produkt ĂŒberschreiten auch unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Unsicherheiten in der Messmethodik immer noch weitgehend die GCOS-Zielgenauigkeit an den jeweiligen Untersuchungsstandorten. So zeigte sich, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt die Bodenbeobachtungen an allen drei Studienstandorten systematisch unterschĂ€tzte (d.h. negative Werte fĂŒr die mittlere relative Abweichung in Prozent). Die höchste Übereinstimmung wurde am borealen Standort Peace River mit einer mittleren relativen Abweichung von -13% (RÂČ=0,67) beobachtet. An den Standorten Graswang und Santa Rosa betrugen die mittleren relativen Abweichungen jeweils -20% (RÂČ=0,68) bzw. -25% (RÂČ=0,26). Es wurde argumentiert, dass diese hohen Abweichungen auf eine Kombination sowohl des generisch ausgerichteten Algorithmus als auch der höheren KomplexitĂ€t beider Ökosysteme zurĂŒckgefĂŒhrt werden können. Es zeigte sich außerdem, dass die zeitlichen Aggregierung der FAPAR-Bodendaten zum Vergleich mit S2 FAPAR-Produkt, das sich auf Tagesmittelwerte bezieht, gut ĂŒberlegt sein sollte, da die ÜberschĂ€tzung von FAPAR wĂ€hrend eines hohen Sonnenzenitwinkels in den Bodendaten die Validierungsergebnisse verzerren kann. Unter BerĂŒcksichtigung der Unsicherheiten der Bodendaten erfĂŒllte das S2 FAPAR Produkt jedoch nur am boreale Untersuchungsstandort die Genauigkeitsanforderungen des GCOS. Insgesamt hat sich gezeigt, dass das S2 FAPAR-Produkt bereits gut zur Beurteilung der zeitlichen VariabilitĂ€t von FAPAR geeignet ist, aber aufgrund der geringen Genauigkeit der absoluten Werte sind die Möglichkeiten, globale Produktionseffizienzmodelle zu speisen und globale Kohlenstoffbilanzen zu bewerten, derzeit begrenzt. Die Genauigkeit von satellitengestĂŒtzten FAPAR-Produkten ist abhĂ€ngig von der KomplexitĂ€t des beobachteten Waldökosystems. Die höchste Übereinstimmung zwischen satellitengestĂŒtztem FAPAR und Bodenmessungen, sowohl hinsichtlich der Darstellung von absolutem Werten als auch der rĂ€umlichen VariabilitĂ€t, wurde am borealen Standort erzielt, fĂŒr den die KomplexitĂ€t des Ökosystems unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Waldstrukturvariablen und Artenreichtum am geringsten ausfĂ€llt. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse wurden in drei Publikationen dieser kumulativen Arbeit erarbeitet. Insgesamt schließt diese Arbeit eine WissenslĂŒcke in der Darstellung des Zusammenspiels verschiedener Umgebungsbedingungen auf die Genauigkeit von situ FAPAR-Messungen. Da die Unsicherheiten von FAPAR nun unter Feldbedingungen quantifizierbar sind, sollten sie in zukĂŒnftigen Validierungsstudien auch berĂŒcksichtigt werden. In diesem Zusammenhang können die in dieser Arbeit genannten praktische Empfehlungen fĂŒr die DurchfĂŒhrung von Bodenbeobachtungen zur Erstellung von Messprotokollen herangezogen werden, die dringend erforderlich sind, um globale satellitengestĂŒtzte FAPAR-Beobachten validieren und zukĂŒnftig verbessern zu können

    Evaluation of MODIS Land products for air temperature estimations in Colombia

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    El producto moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) land-surface temperature/emissivity (LST ) es a menudo utilizado en estudios meteorolĂłgicos para evaluaciones en tiempo cuasireal. Colombia requiere de un manejo prospectivo de sus ecosistemas productivos, sin embargo no existe una alta densidad de mediciones para la temperatura de la superficie (temperatura del aire a 2 m). La validaciĂłn clĂĄsica de los productos MODIS incluye trabajo de campo para la calibraciĂłn y la mediciĂłn de las diferencias entre los radiĂłmetros y el sensor MODIS. Para esta investigaciĂłn, los datos del producto LST de MODIS son comparados con estaciones climatolĂłgicas usando tĂ©cnicas de regresiĂłn mĂșltiple para aumentar la exactitud de MODIS LST en conjunto con los productos MOD09GA , MOD17A2, MOD15A2 y MOD13A2 como parĂĄmetros auxiliares (variables explicativas) dentro del modelo final. Las mediciones terrestres se realizaron en la zona Caribe, Casanare y Valle del Cauca, usando las estaciones agroclimatolĂłgicas en la primera temporada seca de 2007 y los datos MODIS en versiĂłn diaria. El Ă­ndice de vegetaciĂłn aumentado, la porciĂłn de radiaciĂłn activa fotosintĂ©tica y la fotosĂ­ntesis neta son incluidas en el modelo final como estimadores del parĂĄmetro clave para la temperatura del aire: la vegetaciĂłn. Finalmente dos factores son propuestos para la estimaciĂłn de la temperatura de la superficie-LST : ĂĄngulo cenit del sensor y ĂĄngulo cenit del sol, que registran los cambios en la reflectancia de la vegetaciĂłn y la sensibilidad del sensor.The moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) land-surface temperature/emissivity (LST) product is often used for studies in meteorology due to its ability for near realtime evaluations. Colombia, as a country requires a prospective management for its productive ecosystems, but currently does not have sufficient spatially-distributed field data for air temperature at 2-m above the ground. The traditional validation of MODIS products includes field campaigns for calibrating and measuring differences between the satellite sensor and radiometers. For this research, the LST data on the ground was compared with climatologic stations using multiple regression techniques for improving the accuracy of the LST from MODIS, using MOD09GA, MOD17A2, MOD15A2, MOD13A2 as ancillary parameters (explanatory variables) in the final model. The ground measurements were obtained in the Caribbean zone and the Casanare and Valle del Cauca departments in Colombia, using agroclimatic stations in the first dry season of 2007 and daily MODIS data. Enhanced vegetation index, fraction of photosynthetically active radiation, and net photosynthesis were included in the final model for explaining the vegetation as a key parameter for air temperature. Finally, two factors were proposed for LST estimation: sensor zenith angle and solar zenith angle due to the reflectance of the vegetation and sensitivity of the sensor.Fil: Castro Diaz, Ivan Ricardo. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de FilosofĂ­a y Letras. Instituto de Geografia "Romualdo Ardissone"; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones CientĂ­ficas y TĂ©cnicas; Argentin

    Generating Global Leaf Area Index from Landsat: Algorithm Formulation and Demonstration

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    This paper summarizes the implementation of a physically based algorithm for the retrieval of vegetation green Leaf Area Index (LAI) from Landsat surface reflectance data. The algorithm is based on the canopy spectral invariants theory and provides a computationally efficient way of parameterizing the Bidirectional Reflectance Factor (BRF) as a function of spatial resolution and wavelength. LAI retrievals from the application of this algorithm to aggregated Landsat surface reflectances are consistent with those of MODIS for homogeneous sites represented by different herbaceous and forest cover types. Example results illustrating the physics and performance of the algorithm suggest three key factors that influence the LAI retrieval process: 1) the atmospheric correction procedures to estimate surface reflectances; 2) the proximity of Landsatobserved surface reflectance and corresponding reflectances as characterized by the model simulation; and 3) the quality of the input land cover type in accurately delineating pure vegetated components as opposed to mixed pixels. Accounting for these factors, a pilot implementation of the LAI retrieval algorithm was demonstrated for the state of California utilizing the Global Land Survey (GLS) 2005 Landsat data archive. In a separate exercise, the performance of the LAI algorithm over California was evaluated by using the short-wave infrared band in addition to the red and near-infrared bands. Results show that the algorithm, while ingesting the short-wave infrared band, has the ability to delineate open canopies with understory effects and may provide useful information compared to a more traditional two-band retrieval. Future research will involve implementation of this algorithm at continental scales and a validation exercise will be performed in evaluating the accuracy of the 30-m LAI products at several field sites

    Terrestrial vegetation dynamics and their impacts on surface climate

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    Vegetation controls the exchange of heat, mass and momentum between the land surface and the atmosphere, and is also the primary producer that sustains life on Earth. We combine theoretical analyses, satellite and in-situ observations, and Earth system model simulations in this dissertation to illustrate the key role of vegetation in the climate system and human society. Specifically, this is accomplished via three studies, described below. First, we address the problem of how to retrieve Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FPAR) from a novel satellite Bidirectional Reflectance Factor product derived from the Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction algorithm. The LAI/FPAR retrieval is done via a radiative transfer model using the recently developed theory of spectral invariants. Our analyses show that the LAI/FPAR data sets developed in this study have higher accuracy and better stability relative to the existing products, especially in cloudy conditions and under high aerosol loadings. Second, we analyze the long-term trend in LAI derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer observations and identify its main driver. We find that over a third of the terrestrial vegetation shows statistically significant increasing trends in LAI (i.e., Earth greening) during the 21st century. Both remote sensing and inventory data show that land-use management is the key driver of this greening, arising primarily from large-scale tree planting and intensive agriculture in emerging countries like China and India. This finding highlights the need for a more realistic representation of land-use practices in Earth system models. Third, we use a new method based on the concept of “two-resistances” and the Community Land Model (CLM5) runs with prescribed satellite-derived LAI to quantify the impacts of Earth greening on land surface temperature (LST). We find that over 90% of the Earth greening can lead to a local cooling effect at the annual scale. Further attribution analysis with multiple data sources reveals that aerodynamic resistance is the dominant factor controlling the LST change. The greening produces a decrease in aerodynamic resistance, which favors increased heat dissipation by turbulent fluxes, including the latent heat flux. These studies that span LAI data production, long-term trends and their impacts highlight the importance of vegetation dynamics in the natural and human systems

    How does the global Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FPAR) product relate to regionally developed land cover and vegetation products in a semi-arid Australian savanna?

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    Spatio-temporally variable information on total vegetation cover is highly relevant to water quality and land management in river catchments adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. A time series of the global Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (FPAR; 2000-2006) and its underlying biome classification (MOD12Q1) were compared to national land cover and regional, remotely sensed products in the dry-tropical Burdekin River. The MOD12Q1 showed reasonable agreement with a classification of major vegetation groups for 94% of the study area. We then compared dry-seasonal, quality controlled MODIS FPAR observations to (i) Landsat-based woody foliage projective cover (wFPC) (2004) and (ii) MODIS bare ground index (BGI) observations (2001-2003). Statistical analysis of the MODIS FPAR revealed a significant sensitivity to Landsat wFPC-based Vegetation Structural Categories (VSC) and VSC-specific temporal variability over the 2004 dry season. The MODIS FPAR relation to 20 coinciding MODIS BGI dry-seasonal observations was significant (ρ < 0.001) for homogeneous areas of low wFPC. Our results show that the global MODIS FPAR can be used to identify VSC, represent VSC-specific variability of PAR absorption, and indicate that the amount, structure, and optical properties of green and non-green vegetation components contribute to the MODIS FPAR signal
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