902 research outputs found

    From Aspiration to Actuality under Xi Jinping: Reinterpreting the Outcome-driven Debate towards the Role of Historical Materialism in Chinaโ€™s Rise, 1949โ€“2021

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    DOES THE REVOLUTIONARY IDEOLOGY of socialist rising powers influence their rise to power? If so, how, when, and why? The literature on rising powers works on a set of historical assumptions which, when applied to Chinaโ€™s rise, predict an inevitable rise to power. In this literature, a new world order is imagined with China as a new kind of leading great power. For some, this development represents the correction of imperial Chinaโ€™s historical position in the world. This thesis disagrees with this outcome-based analytical approach to Chinaโ€™s rise. It instead posits another argument: in understanding the dynamics of a socialist rising power, the role of ideology matters more than the rising power literature suggests. In the Chinese context, this means bringing the Communist Party of China back into the story of its rise. This Party- state builds on a genuine belief in historical materialism and a teleology of success which it, presumably, represents. Treating the Xi Jinping era (2012 to the present) as a pivotal moment, this thesis understands the Chinese Dream of Great Rejuvenation as promethean. While it fits within the Chinese tradition of organising China in its own image, as a political actor it is entirely new. Chinaโ€™s rise, then, becomes much more than simply ensuring the Partyโ€™s self- perpetuation of its political rule. It is a grand historical narrative which may only be understood, and problema

    Second-Person Surveillance: Politics of User Implication in Digital Documentaries

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    This dissertation analyzes digital documentaries that utilize second-person address and roleplay to make users feel implicated in contemporary refugee crises, mass incarceration in the U.S., and state and corporate surveillances. Digital documentaries are seemingly more interactive and participatory than linear film and video documentary as they are comprised of a variety of auditory, visual, and written media, utilize networked technologies, and turn the documentary audience into a documentary user. I draw on scholarship from documentary, game, new media, and surveillance studies to analyze how second-person address in digital documentaries is configured through user positioning and direct address within the works themselves, in how organizations and creators frame their productions, and in how users and players respond in reviews, discussion forums, and Letโ€™s Plays. I build on Michael Rothbergโ€™s theorization of the implicated subject to explore how these digital documentaries bring the user into complicated relationality with national and international crises. Visually and experientially implying that users bear responsibility to the subjects and subject matter, these works can, on the one hand, replicate modes of liberal empathy for suffering, distant โ€œothersโ€ and, on the other, simulate oneโ€™s own surveillant modes of observation or behavior to mirror it back to users and open up oneโ€™s offline thoughts and actions as a site of critique. This dissertation charts how second-person address shapes and limits the political potentialities of documentary projects and connects them to a lineage of direct address from educational and propaganda films, museum exhibits, and serious games. By centralizing the userโ€™s individual experience, the interventions that second-person digital documentaries can make into social discourse change from public, institution-based education to more privatized forms of sentimental education geared toward personal edification and self-realization. Unless tied to larger initiatives or movements, I argue that digital documentaries reaffirm a neoliberal politics of individual self-regulation and governance instead of public education or collective, social intervention. Chapter one focuses on 360-degree virtual reality (VR) documentaries that utilize the feeling of presence to position users as if among refugees and as witnesses to refugee experiences in camps outside of Europe and various dwellings in European cities. My analysis of Clouds Over Sidra (Gabo Arora and Chris Milk 2015) and The Displaced (Imraan Ismail and Ben C. Solomon 2015) shows how these VR documentaries utilize observational realism to make believable and immersive their representations of already empathetic refugees. The empathetic refugee is often young, vulnerable, depoliticized and dehistoricized and is a well-known trope in other forms of humanitarian media that continues into VR documentaries. Forced to Flee (Zahra Rasool 2017), I am Rohingya (Zahra Rasool 2017), So Leben Flรผchtlinge in Berlin (Berliner Morgenpost 2017), and Limbo: A Virtual Experience of Waiting for Asylum (Shehani Fernando 2017) disrupt easy immersions into realistic-looking VR experiences of stereotyped representations and user identifications and, instead, can reflect back the userโ€™s political inaction and surveillant modes of looking. Chapter two analyzes web- and social media messenger-based documentaries that position users as outsiders to U.S. mass incarceration. Users are noir-style co-investigators into the crime of the prison-industrial complex in Fremont County, Colorado in Prison Valley: The Prison Industry (David Dufresne and Philippe Brault 2009) and co-riders on a bus transporting prison inmatesโ€™ loved ones for visitations to correctional facilities in Upstate New York in A Temporary Contact (Nirit Peled and Sara Kolster 2017). Both projects construct an experience of carceral constraint for users to reinscribe seeming โ€œoutsideโ€ places, people, and experiences as within the continuation of the racialized and classed politics of state control through mass incarceration. These projects utilize interfaces that create a tension between replicating an exploitative hierarchy between non-incarcerated users and those subject to mass incarceration while also de-immersing users in these experiences to mirror back the userโ€™s supposed distance from this mode of state regulation. Chapter three investigates a type of digital game I term dataveillance simulation games, which position users as surveillance agents in ambiguously dystopian nation-states and force users to use their own critical thinking and judgment to construct the criminality of state-sanctioned surveillance targets. Project Perfect Citizen (Bad Cop Studios 2016), Orwell: Keeping an Eye on You (Osmotic Studios 2016), and Papers, Please (Lucas Pope 2013) all create a dual empathy: players empathize with bureaucratic surveillance agents while empathizing with surveillance targets whose emails, text messages, documents, and social media profiles reveal them to be โ€œnormalโ€ people. I argue that while these games show criminality to be a construct, they also utilize a racialized fear of the loss of oneโ€™s individual privacy to make players feel like they too could be surveillance targets. Chapter four examines personalized digital documentaries that turn users and their data into the subject matter. Do Not Track (Brett Gaylor 2015), A Week with Wanda (Joe Derry Hall 2019), Stealing Ur Feelings (Noah Levenson 2019), Alfred Premium (Joรซl Ronez, Pierre Corbinais, and ร‰milie F. Grenier 2019), How They Watch You (Nick Briz 2021), and Fairly Intelligentโ„ข (A.M. Darke 2021) track, monitor, and confront users with their own online behavior to reflect back a corporate surveillance that collects, analyzes, and exploits user data for profit. These digital documentaries utilize emotional fear- and humor-based appeals to persuade users that these technologies are controlling them, shaping their desires and needs, and dehumanizing them through algorithmic surveillance

    Ethnographies of Collaborative Economies across Europe: Understanding Sharing and Caring

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    "Sharing economy" and "collaborative economy" refer to a proliferation of initiatives, business models, digital platforms and forms of work that characterise contemporary life: from community-led initiatives and activist campaigns, to the impact of global sharing platforms in contexts such as network hospitality, transportation, etc. Sharing the common lens of ethnographic methods, this book presents in-depth examinations of collaborative economy phenomena. The book combines qualitative research and ethnographic methodology with a range of different collaborative economy case studies and topics across Europe. It uniquely offers a truly interdisciplinary approach. It emerges from a unique, long-term, multinational, cross-European collaboration between researchers from various disciplines (e.g., sociology, anthropology, geography, business studies, law, computing, information systems), career stages, and epistemological backgrounds, brought together by a shared research interest in the collaborative economy. This book is a further contribution to the in-depth qualitative understanding of the complexities of the collaborative economy phenomenon. These rich accounts contribute to the painting of a complex landscape that spans several countries and regions, and diverse political, cultural, and organisational backdrops. This book also offers important reflections on the role of ethnographic researchers, and on their stance and outlook, that are of paramount interest across the disciplines involved in collaborative economy research

    The Politics of Platformization: Amsterdam Dialogues on Platform Theory

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    What is platformization and why is it a relevant category in the contemporary political landscape? How is it related to cybernetics and the history of computation? This book tries to answer such questions by engaging in multidisciplinary dialogues about the first ten years of the emerging fields of platform studies and platform theory. It deploys a narrative and playful approach that makes use of anecdotes, personal histories, etymologies, and futurable speculations to investigate both the fragmented genealogy that led to platformization and the organizational and economic trends that guide nowadays platform sociotechnical imaginaries

    Collaborative and Engaged Research to Strengthen Equity and Adaptive Governance in Co-Managed Fisheries

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    Small-scale, co-managed fisheries are found throughout the world and often represent intertwining cultures, societies, communities, economies, institutions, and governments. They face complex issues, derived from ecological and social sources. Solving these issues requires diverse expertise, often developed through engaged methodologies which can facilitate collaborative solution creation between researchers, community members, and others. In this dissertation, I demonstrate the benefits of these engaged methodologies and review how they, when coupled with anticolonial approaches to research, can create more equitable solutions to complex issues. This dissertation focuses on multiple projects within the wild clam fishery in Maine including: (1) the creation of a learning network that could improve communication among individual communities, and (2) the use of boundary objects to develop oceanographic models and support adaptive policy related to restoration efforts. Additionally, this dissertation addresses how colonial ideologies impact these efforts and how recursive, reflective, and collaborative methods may provide one way to destabilize these ideologies. As such, this dissertation is organized into five chapters. First, I introduce sustainability science, knowledge weaving, and the wild clam fishery as a unique case for studying co-managed fisheries facing complex issues. In the second chapter, I describe a comparative case study of four research frameworks related to fisheries science, and how they impact, shape, and support Indigenous sovereignty. Next, I describe the Maine Shellfish Learning Network, an organization developed by my advisors, myself, and other collaborators with the goal of creating new spaces for communication between communities and other related institutions. In the fourth chapter, I describe boundary object projects which influenced community-level adaptive capacities. In the final chapter, I present my conclusions. It is hoped the results from this research will inspire other institutions and industries to engage and reflect on similar choice making

    ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ์‹œ๋Œ€์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ ์ •์น˜: ํ•œ๊ตญ ๊ฐ€์ƒ์ž์‚ฐ๊ฑฐ๋ž˜์†Œ ๋ฐ ์šฐ๋ฒ„ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ) -- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ์‚ฌํšŒ๊ณผํ•™๋Œ€ํ•™ ์ •์น˜์™ธ๊ตํ•™๋ถ€(์ •์น˜ํ•™์ „๊ณต), 2023. 2. ๊ฐ•์›ํƒ.ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์˜ ๋“ฑ์žฅ์€ ๊ทœ์ œ ํ”„๋กœ์„ธ์Šค์˜ ๊ธฐ์กด ์‹œ์žฅ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์™€ ์ •์น˜์  ์—ญํ•™์— ์ƒ๋‹นํ•œ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ ธ์™”๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ์—…๊ณ„์˜ ์—…์ฒด๋“ค์€ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์›น์‚ฌ์ดํŠธ๋‚˜ ์• ํ”Œ๋ฆฌ์ผ€์ด์…˜์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์‹œ์žฅ์— ์ง„์ถœํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ •๋ถ€ ๊ทœ์ œ๋ฅผ ์šฐํšŒํ•˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ๋ฒ•์ , ๊ทœ์ œ์  ์ง„์ž… ์žฅ๋ฒฝ์„ ๋‚ฎ์ถค์œผ๋กœ์จ ์†Œ๋น„์ž๋“ค์ด ์ƒ์‚ฐ ํ™œ๋™์— ์ฐธ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ธฐํšŒ๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค๋Š” ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์ฑ„๋„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์„œ๋น„์Šค๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ๊ณผ ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด ํŠน์ • ๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ๋˜๋Š” ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜์—ญ์— ์†ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ์‹ ๊ทœ ์„œ๋น„์Šค ์ œ๊ณต์—…์ฒด๊ฐ€ ์‹œ์žฅ์— ์ง„์ž…ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋ฐ›์•„์•ผ ํ•˜๋Š” ์ •๋ถ€ ์Šน์ธ์œผ๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋น„๊ต์  ์ž์œ ๋กญ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์˜ ์ „๋ก€ ์—†๋Š” ํŠน์„ฑ์€ ์‹œ์žฅ๊ณผ ์†Œ๋น„์ž์˜ ๊ฒฌ๊ณ ํ•œ ๊ตฌ๋ถ„์„ ๋ชจํ˜ธํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•  ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ์‹œ์žฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ํ†ต์ œ๋ ฅ์„ ์•ฝํ™”์‹œํ‚ด์œผ๋กœ์จ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ๊ฒฝ์ œ์ , ์ •์น˜์  ๊ตฌ์กฐ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋„์ „์„ ์ œ๊ธฐํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ๊ธฐ์—…๋“ค์ด ์ƒ๋‹นํ•œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์ž ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์„ ํ™•๋ณดํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋˜์–ด ์‹œ์žฅ ํ˜ผ๋ž€์„ ์•ผ๊ธฐํ•จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ, ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ด์ต ์ง‘๋‹จ๊ณผ ์ •๋ถ€ ๋ชจ๋‘๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์‹ฌ๊ฐํ•œ ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ ์ €ํ•ญ์ด ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์˜คํ”„๋ผ์ธ์— ๊ธฐ์ดˆํ•˜์—ฌ ์ง€์›์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•ด ์ค„ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž๋“ค๊ณผ ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ, ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์‹œ์žฅ ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž๋“ค์€ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์„ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ ์ •๋ถ€์— ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์‹ ๊ทœ ์ง„์ž…์ž๋“ค์„ ๊ทœ์ œํ•˜๋„๋ก ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฐ€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ, ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์˜ ์‹œ์žฅ ์ง„์ถœ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ์— ์ •๋ถ€๋Š” ๋Œ€์ฒด๋กœ ํ•ด๋‹น ์„œ๋น„์Šค์™€ ๊ทœ์ œ ๊ทผ๊ฑฐ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ถฉ๋ถ„ํžˆ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜์ง€ ๋ชปํ•˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์˜ ์‹œ์žฅ ํ™•๋Œ€์— ๋Œ€์‘ํ•  ์ „๋‹ด ์ •๋ถ€๊ธฐ๊ด€์„ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ์ง€ ์•Š์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€๋Š” ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ์‹œ์žฅ ์ง„์ž…์ž๋กœ์„œ ๊ทœ์ œ๋ฅผ ์ค€์ˆ˜ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š” ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ธ ํƒœ๋„๋ฅผ ์ทจํ•  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ ์š”๊ตฌ์™€ ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ฐ•์— ์ง๋ฉดํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—… ๊ทœ์ œ๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ ๊ทœ์ œ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ฑ์„ ๋ฐœํ‘œํ•  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋†’๋‹ค. ์ด๋ ‡๊ฒŒ ๊ธฐ๋“๊ถŒ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ์••๋ ฅ๊ณผ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์˜์ง€๊ฐ€ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ฑ์„ ํ˜•์„ฑํ•œ๋‹ค๋ฉด, ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค๊ฐ€ ๊ฒฌ๊ณ ํ•œ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•˜์ง€ ๋ชปํ•œ ์ƒํ™ฉ์—์„œ ์ดํ›„ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ •์ฑ… ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์— ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋Š”์ง€ ์˜๋ฌธ์ด ์ œ๊ธฐ๋œ๋‹ค. ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค๋Š” ์ฃผ๋กœ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์ฑ„๋„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์šด์˜๋œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ ์กฐ์ง์ ์ธ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์„ ๊ตฌ์„ฑํ•  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋‚ฎ์•„ ์ •๋ถ€ ์ •์ฑ…์˜ ๊ฒฐ์ •์— ์œ ํšจํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๊ธฐ ์–ด๋ ต๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿผ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ํŠน์ • ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜๋„๊ฐ€ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝ, ์—ฐ๊ธฐ, ๋˜๋Š” ์ทจ์†Œ๋˜๋Š” ์‚ฌ๋ก€๊ฐ€ ์กด์žฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์™œ ์ผ๋ถ€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค๋Š” ๊ธฐ์กด ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ๋ฐ˜๋Œ€๊ฐ€ ๋’ท๋ฐ›์นจํ•˜๋Š” ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ ๊ทœ์ œ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์„ฑ๊ณตํ•˜๋Š”๊ฐ€๋ผ๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์งˆ๋ฌธ์„ ์ œ์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ•ด๋‹น ์งˆ๋ฌธ์— ๋‹ตํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด, ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์˜ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•œ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ˜•ํƒœ์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์ธ ๋ณด์ด์ง€ ์•Š๋Š” ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ(IIG : Invisible Interest Group)์˜ ๊ฐœ๋…์„ ์ œ์•ˆํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ๋“ฑ์žฅ์€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ ๊ณผ์ •์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ์ง€์›ํ•˜๋Š” ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๋Œ€์ค‘์ด ์ž๋ฐœ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋™์›๋˜๋Š” ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ˜„์ƒ์ด๋‹ค. IIG๋Š” ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์›์˜ ํŠน์ง• ๋ฐ ์ •์น˜์  ๋ชฉ์ ๊ณผ ๋™์›์˜ ํ˜•ํƒœ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ์ง‘๋‹จํ™œ๋™์ธ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ, ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์‚ฌํšŒ์šด๋™๊ณผ๋Š” ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™”๋œ๋‹ค. ๋จผ์ €, ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋น„์กฐ์งํ™”๋œ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์ธ IIG๋Š” 1์ฐจ์  ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ(primary group)๊ณผ ํŒŒ์ƒ์  ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ(derivative group)์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜๋ฉฐ, ๊ณต์‹์ ์ธ ์กฐ์ง์ด๋‚˜ ํšŒ์›๊ฐ€์ž… ์—†์ด ์šด์˜๋œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ๋ชฉ์ ์€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž์™€ ์†Œ๋น„์ž๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ•œ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ๋ฒ”์œ„์˜ ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž๋“ค์ด ์ง€์›ํ•˜๋Š” ์ž„์‹œ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๋™์›์„ ์กฐ์งํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ์ •๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ์ฒ˜์Œ์— ๋ฐœํ‘œํ•œ ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜๋„๋ฅผ ์กฐ์ •ํ•˜๋„๋ก ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. IIG๋Š” ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ๊ณผ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ์‚ฌํšŒ์šด๋™๊ณผ ๊ตฌ๋ณ„๋˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๊ธฐ์กด์žฌํ•˜๋˜ ๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€์˜ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ง‘ํ•ฉํ–‰๋™์—์„œ ํŒŒ์ƒ๋œ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•จ๊ณผ ๋™์‹œ์— IIG๋งŒ์˜ ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋™์งˆ์ ์ธ(homogenous) ๋ชฉํ‘œ๋ฅผ ์ถ”๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฐœ์ธ๋“ค์„ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ์กฐ์ง์ธ ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ ๋ฐ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์‚ฌํšŒ์šด๋™๊ณผ๋Š” ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ IIG๋Š” ๊ณตํ†ต๋œ ๋ชฉํ‘œ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์กŒ์ง€๋งŒ ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™”๋œ ๊ด€์‹ฌ์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„(differentiated) ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž๋“ค์„ ํฌ๊ด„ํ•œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ์™ธ๋ถ€ ๋ชฉํ‘œ(external goals)๋Š” ํŠน์ • ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž์˜ ์‚ฌ์  ์ด์ต์„ ์ง€์›ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด์ง€๋งŒ, ํ•ด๋‹น ๊ทธ๋ฃน์˜ ๋‚ด์  ๋ชฉํ‘œ(internal interests)๋Š” ์ฃผ์š” ๊ทธ๋ฃน๋ณ„๋กœ ์ƒ์ดํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ 1์ฐจ์  ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์€ ๋Œ€์ฒด๋กœ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ๊ธฐ์—…์˜ ์ง์›๊ณผ ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋“ค์˜ ๋‚ด์  ๋ชฉํ‘œ๋Š” ํŠน์ • ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ๊ธฐ์—…์˜ ์ด์ต์„ ์ง€์›ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ์ง์ ‘์ ์ธ ์‚ฌ์  ์ด์ต์„ ํ™•๋ณดํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ์™€๋Š” ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ ์†Œ๋น„์ž์™€ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ธ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋œ ํŒŒ์ƒ์  ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์ด IIG์˜ ํ™œ๋™์— ์ ๊ทน ์ฐธ์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ์ด์œ ๋Š” ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ์„œ๋น„์Šค ์ด์šฉ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๊ฐ„์ ‘์ ์ธ ๊ณต์  ์ด์ต์„ ์ง€์†์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ–ฅ์œ ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•จ์ด๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ, ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋Œ€์ค‘์˜ ๋™์›์€ ์ด์ „์—๋Š” ์ž ์žฌ ์ง‘๋‹จ(latent group)์œผ๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ฒจ์กŒ๋˜ ์†Œ๋น„์ž์™€ ๋Œ€์ค‘ ๋ชจ๋‘์˜ ์ด์ต์„ ๋Œ€๋ณ€ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด๋Š” ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์ด ์•„๋‹Œ ๊ณต์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ํ™œ๋™ ๋ชฉ์ ๊ณผ ์ผ์น˜ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ IIG๋Š” ์ „ํ†ต์  ๊ฐœ๋…์˜ ์ง‘ํ•ฉํ–‰๋™์„ ๋น„ํŒํ•˜๋Š” ๋™์‹œ์— ๋Œ€์ค‘์ด ์ •์น˜๊ณผ์ •์— ์ ๊ทน์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฐธ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š” ์ƒˆ๋กญ๊ณ  ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ํ˜•ํƒœ์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ์กฐ์งํ™” ํ˜•์‹ ๋˜ํ•œ ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ด์ต ์ง‘๋‹จ๊ณผ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ์‚ฌํšŒ ์šด๋™์˜ ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ๋ชจ๋‘ ํ˜ผํ•ฉํ•œ ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•œ๋‹ค. IIG๋Š” ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ์œผ๋กœ ๋™์›๋˜๋Š” ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž์™€ ์†Œ๋น„์ž๋กœ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋œ ์ž๋ฐœ์ ์ธ ๋Œ€์ค‘๋“ค์ด๋ฏ€๋กœ, ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค. ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ IIG๋Š” ์ค‘์•™ ์กฐ์ง์ด๋‚˜ ํ์‡„์ ์ธ ํšŒ์› ๊ฐ€์ž…์ด ์—†์Œ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ , ์ •๋ถ€ ๊ทœ์ œ์— ๋ฐ˜๋Œ€ํ•˜๋Š” ์ง€์ง€์ž๋“ค์„ ๋ชจ์œผ๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ํŠน์ • ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž์— ์˜ํ•ด ๊ฒฐ์„ฑ์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ์ด ์ œ๊ธฐ๋จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์กฐ์งํ™”๋œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ด์ต ๋‹จ์ฒด์˜ ๊ฒฐ์„ฑ๊ณผ ๋‹ค์†Œ ์œ ์‚ฌํ•˜๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํ˜•ํƒœ์˜ ์ง‘๋‹จํ–‰๋™๊ณผ ๋‹ฌ๋ฆฌ IIG๋Š” ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์‹œ์žฅ๊ฐœ์ž… ์œ„ํ˜‘์ด ๊ณต์‹์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐœํ‘œ๋˜๊ธฐ ์ „๊นŒ์ง€๋Š” ๊ฐ€์‹œ์ ์ด์ง€ ์•Š๋‹ค(invisible)๋Š” ๋…ํŠนํ•œ ํŠน์ง•์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ์ฐธ๊ฐ€์ž๋“ค์€ ์ •๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ํŠน์ • ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ์‚ฌ์—…์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ตœ์ดˆ ๊ทœ์ œ์˜ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ฑ์„ ๋ฐœํ‘œํ•œ ์ดํ›„๊ฐ€ ๋˜์–ด์„œ์•ผ ๋™์›๋˜๊ธฐ ์‹œ์ž‘ํ•˜๋ฉฐ ๋น„๋กœ์†Œ ๊ฐ€์‹œํ™”๋˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๊ทธ๋“ค์ด ์ด์šฉํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€ ๊ทœ์ œ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ฑ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ์œ„ํ˜‘๋ฐ›์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ง๊ฐ„์ ‘์  ์ด์ต์„ ๋ณดํ˜ธํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ž„์‹œ์ ์ด๊ณ (ad hoc), ์ž๋ฐœ์ ์ธ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ํ™œ๋™์„ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋™์›๋˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ IIG ํ™œ๋™์˜ ์„ฑ๊ณต ์—ฌ๋ถ€๋Š” ๊ธฐ์กด ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜๋„์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์นจ์œผ๋กœ์จ ์‚ฌ์—…์˜ ์šด์˜ ๋ฐฉ์‹์„ ๊ทœ์ œ ์ด์ „๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์œ ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ์— ์ดˆ์ ์ด ๋งž์ถฐ์ ธ ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์— ๋‹ค์†Œ ๋…ํŠนํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋™์›๋ชฉํ‘œ๋Š” ์ •์ฑ…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ •์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๋น„ํŒ์„ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ, ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ •์ฑ…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ • ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ํ˜•ํƒœ์˜ ์ง‘๋‹จํ–‰๋™์ด ์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ์ด์ต์— ๋” ์œ ๋ฆฌํ•˜๋„๋ก ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ •์ฑ…์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์ณ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ์ •์ฑ…์„ ํ˜•์„ฑํ•˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ •์ฑ…์„ ๋ณ€ํ™”์‹œํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์„ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์—๋งŒ ์ง‘์ค‘ํ–ˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ฐ˜ํ•ด, IIG๋Š” ํ–ฅ์œ ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋˜ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์‹œ์žฅ ์งˆ์„œ๊ฐ€ ๋ณ€ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ณ  ์œ ์ง€๋˜๊ฒŒ ํ•˜๊ธฐ์œ„ํ•ด ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ์ •์ฑ…์˜ ํ˜•์„ฑ ์ž์ฒด๋ฅผ ๋ง‰๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์— ์ง์ค‘ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ •์ฑ…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ • ๋…ผ์˜์˜ ํ•œ๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์ง€์ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ ‡๋‹ค๋ฉด IIG์˜ ์ฃผ์š” ์„ฑ๊ณต ์š”์ธ์€ ๋ฌด์—‡์ธ๊ฐ€? ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” IIG๊ฐ€ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ์ •์ฑ…์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์€ IIG๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๋Š” ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ ฅ์˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋‹ฌ๋ ค ์žˆ๋‹ค๊ณ  ์ฃผ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ ฅ์˜ ๊ทœ๋ชจ๋Š” ๋™์›๋ ฅ, ์กฐ์ง๋ ฅ, ์ •์น˜์  ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€ ์ œ์‹œ๋ ฅ ๋“ฑ ์„ธ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ถ”์ •ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜๋Š” ํŠนํžˆ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž์™€ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ ๋˜๋Š” ์ •๋ถ€ ์ฃผ์ฒด ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฐˆ๋“ฑ์ด ์‹ฌํ™”๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๋Œ€์‘ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ์— ํ•„์ˆ˜์ ์ด๋‹ค. ๋™์›๋ ฅ์ด๋ž€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž๊ฐ€ ์˜์ง€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ž ์žฌ์  ์ธ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ์‹ค์ œ ๋™์›ํ™œ๋™ ์ฐธ๊ฐ€์ž ์ˆ˜๋ฅผ ๋งํ•œ๋‹ค. ์—ฌ๊ธฐ์—๋Š” ์ž ์žฌ์  ์ธ๋ ฅ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์„ ์ถ”์ •ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—… ์„œ๋น„์Šค๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜๋Š” ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž์™€ ์†Œ๋น„์ž์˜ ์ˆ˜, ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์ฒญ์› ๋ฐ ์†Œ์…œ๋ฏธ๋””์–ด ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€์™€ ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž ์ˆ˜, ํ•ด๋‹น ์‚ฌ์•ˆ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ๋‰ด์Šค์˜ ๊ฐœ์ˆ˜ ๋“ฑ์ด ํฌํ•จ๋œ๋‹ค. ์กฐ์ง๋ ฅ์ด๋ž€ IIG ํ™œ๋™์˜ ์ง‘์ค‘ํ™”๋ฅผ ์˜๋ฏธํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์†Œ์ˆ˜์˜ ์ฑ„๋„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ ์žˆ๋Š” ํ™œ๋™์˜ ์ง‘์ค‘๋„๋ฅผ ํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. ์กฐ์ง๋ ฅ์˜ ์ˆ˜์ค€์€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž ๋˜๋Š” ๊ทธ ์ง€์ง€์ž๋“ค์ด ๊ฒŒ์‹œํ•œ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์ฒญ์› ๋ฐ ์บ ํŽ˜์ธ ํ™œ๋™ ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž ์ˆ˜, ๋™์› ๋ชฉํ‘œ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑ์— ์†Œ์š”๋œ ์‹œ๊ฐ„, ๋™์ผ ์‚ฌ์•ˆ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋™์› ๋ฐ˜๋ณต ๋“ฑ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์‚ดํŽด๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ, ์ •์น˜์  ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€ ์ œ์‹œ๋ ฅ์€ IIG๊ฐ€ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ์ •์น˜์  ์‹œ๊ธฐ์— ์ •์น˜์  ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€๋ฅผ ๊ณต์‹ํ™”ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ์„ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ๋‹ค. IIG์˜ ์ •์น˜์  ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€ ์ „๋‹ฌ๋ ฅ์€ IIG ์ฐธ๊ฐ€์ž๋“ค ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ๊ณต์œ ๋œ ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€์™€ ๊ทธ๋“ค์˜ ํ™œ๋™์˜ ์ •์น˜์  ์‹œ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์กฐ์‚ฌ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ์‚ฌ๋ก€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด IIG์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด ์–‘์ ๋ถ„์„๊ณผ ์งˆ์ ๋ถ„์„์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์–‘์ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ํŠธ์œ„ํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ์†Œ์…œ๋ฏธ๋””์–ด ๋ฐ ๋‰ด์Šค ๊ธฐ์‚ฌ์˜ ๋™ํ–ฅ ๋ถ„์„๊ณผ ์†Œ์…œ๋ฏธ๋””์–ด ์ž‘์„ฑ ๋‚ด์šฉ ๊ด€๋ จ ํ…์ŠคํŠธ ๋ถ„์„ ๋“ฑ์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์‹ฌ์ธต ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ์‹ค์‹œ๋œ ํ•œ๊ตญ์˜ ๊ฐ€์ƒ์ž์‚ฐ๊ฑฐ๋ž˜์†Œ ๋ฐ ์šฐ๋ฒ„ ์‚ฌ๋ก€ ๋ถ„์„์„ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์ „๋ฌธ๊ฐ€ ์ธํ„ฐ๋ทฐ๋ฅผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ์ •์„ฑ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๊ตญ๋‚ด ๊ฐ€์ƒ์ž์‚ฐ๊ฑฐ๋ž˜์†Œ์™€ ๊ธ€๋กœ๋ฒŒ 4๋Œ€ ๋„์‹œ(์„œ์šธ, ๋‰ด์š•, ๋Ÿฐ๋˜, ํŒŒ๋ฆฌ)์˜ ์šฐ๋ฒ„ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ๋Œ€์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด IIG๊ฐ€ ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๋น„์ฆˆ๋‹ˆ์Šค ๊ทœ์ œ์ •์ฑ… ๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ •์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด, ์ •๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ์ดˆ๊ธฐ ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜๋„๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ‘œํ–ˆ์„ ๋•Œ, ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ์‚ฌ์—…์ž๋“ค์€ ์„œ๋น„์Šค ์ด์šฉ์ž๋“ค์ด IIG๋ฅผ ๊ฒฐ์„ฑํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ์œ ๋„ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ๋Œ€์ค‘์„ ๋™์›ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ทœ์ œ๊ณผ์ •์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ IIG์˜ ๊ทœ๋ชจ์™€ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์€ ๊ทธ๋“ค์˜ ๋™์›๋ ฅ, ์กฐ์ง๋ ฅ, ์ •์น˜์  ๋ฉ”์‹œ์ง€ ์ œ์‹œ๋ ฅ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๊ฒฐ์ •๋˜์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ IIG์˜ ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ ฅ์ด ์ปค์งˆ์ˆ˜๋ก ์ •๋ถ€๊ฐ€ ๋‹น์ดˆ ๋ฐœํ‘œํ•œ ๊ทœ์ œ ์˜๋„๋ฅผ ์กฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น  ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ๋†’๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ์‚ฌ๋ก€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด, ํ”Œ๋žซํผ ๊ธฐ์—…๋“ค์€ ๊ทœ์ œ ์œ„ํ˜‘์— ์ง๋ฉดํ–ˆ์„ ๋•Œ IIG๋ฅผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑํ•  ๋ชฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์˜ ๋™์› ๋…ธ๋ ฅ์— ์ฐธ์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ์—ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ •๋ถ€ ๊ทœ์ œ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” IIG์˜ ์„ฑ๊ณต์€ IIG๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์— ๋น„ํ•ด ์ •์น˜์  ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์ด ๋” ํฌ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ž ์žฌ๋ ฅ์„ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ฃผ๋Š”์ง€ ์—ฌ๋ถ€์™€ ๊ทธ์— ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜๋Š” IIG ์ •์น˜์  ์••๋ ฅ์˜ ํฌ๊ธฐ์— ๋‹ฌ๋ ค ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ, ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž์™€ ์†Œ๋น„์ž ๋ชจ๋‘๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ•œ IIG์˜ ์ง์ ‘์  ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž์˜ ๊ทœ๋ชจ์™€ ๋Œ€์ค‘์„ ํฌํ•จํ•œ ์ž ์žฌ์  ์ง€์ง€์ž๋“ค์˜ ์ˆ˜๋Š” IIG๊ฐ€ ๊ทœ์ œ๊ณผ์ •์—์„œ ๋ฐœํœ˜ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ ์ˆ˜์ค€์„ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ๊ฒฐ์ •์ ์ธ ์—ญํ• ์„ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๋ณด๋‹ค ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ, IIG์˜ ์„ฑ๊ณต ์š”์ธ์€ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋™์›๋ ฅ๊ณผ ์กฐ์ง๋ ฅ์— ๋‹ฌ๋ ค ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๊ทธ ์ค‘์—์„œ ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž ๋ฐ ์†Œ๋น„์ž์˜ ์ˆ˜์™€ ๋”๋ถˆ์–ด, ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์ฒญ์› ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž์˜ ์ˆ˜๊ฐ€ IIG ์„ฑ๊ณต์˜ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๋ณ€์ˆ˜๋กœ ๋„์ถœ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์˜ˆ์ปจ๋Œ€, IIG์˜ ์„ฑ๊ณต ์‚ฌ๋ก€์ธ ํ•œ๊ตญ์˜ ๊ฐ€์ƒ์ž์‚ฐ๊ฑฐ๋ž˜์†Œ์™€ ๋‰ด์š•๊ณผ ๋Ÿฐ๋˜์˜ ์šฐ๋ฒ„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ƒ์‚ฐ์ž ๋ฐ ์†Œ๋น„์ž๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ•œ ์ƒ๋‹นํ•œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ์ž ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์„ ๊ฐ–์ถ”๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์„ฑ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋ฐœํ‘œ ์ดํ›„ ์ˆ˜์ผ ๋‚ด์— ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ์„œ๋ช…์šด๋™ ๋ฐ ๊ธฐํƒ€ ์†Œ์ˆ˜์˜ ์˜จ๋ผ์ธ ๋™์› ํ™œ๋™์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ˆ˜ ๋งŒ์—์„œ ์ˆ˜์‹ญ๋งŒ ๋ช…์˜ ์„œ๋ช…์„ ๋ชจ์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๋Šฅ๋ ฅ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ์ž…์ฆ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋””์ง€ํ„ธ ์‹œ๋Œ€์˜ ๋งฅ๋ฝ์—์„œ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ์œ ํ˜•์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ๋“ฑ์žฅ๊ณผ ์ด๋“ค์˜ ๋™์›ํ™œ๋™์ด ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ๊ทœ์ œ์ •์ฑ… ๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ •์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์กด ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฐ€ ์„ค๋ช…ํ•˜์ง€ ๋ชปํ•œ ํ˜„์ƒ์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๋””์ง€ํ„ธ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์„ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ˜•ํƒœ์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ์ถœํ˜„์ด ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ •์น˜ยท๊ฒฝ์ œ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ํ‹€์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์ด์ต์ง‘๋‹จ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์™€ ์ •์ฑ…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ณผ์ • ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ถ„์•ผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ด€์ ์„ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ, ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๊ธ‰๋ณ€ํ•˜๋Š” ๋””์ง€ํ„ธ ์‹œ๋Œ€์— ์ •์น˜ํ•™์ž๋“ค์ด ์ •์น˜์  ์ด์Šˆ๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ด๋ก ์  ๋ Œ์ฆˆ๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ธฐ์กด ์ •์น˜ํ•™ ๋ถ„์•ผ์˜ ํ•™์ˆ ์  ๋‹ด๋ก  ๋ฐœ์ „์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•˜๊ณ , ํ–ฅํ›„ ํ•ด๋‹น ๋ถ„์•ผ์˜ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์—์„œ ๊ทธ ์˜์˜๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„๋‹ค.The advent of platform businesses has led to a significant transformation in the existing market structure and the political dynamics of regulatory processes. Platform businesses offer their services through online websites or apps and often circumvent traditional regulations, enabling consumers to participate in production activities by reducing legal and regulatory entry barriers. By bypassing traditional channels and operating outside of specific legal or regulatory frameworks, platform businesses reduce the need for new service providers to obtain government approval to enter the market. These unique characteristics of platform businesses pose challenges to the current economic and political structures, blurring the distinction between market and consumer and undermining the government's control over the market. The expansion of platform businesses, which have disrupted the market, has led to increased organized resistance from both established interest groups and government entities. Unlike platform businesses, incumbent market players have offline-based support groups that they use to exert political pressure on the government to regulate these new entrants. However, the government's lack of understanding of platform business services and their regulatory framework results in the absence of designated entities to address the expansion of these businesses in the market. Moreover, the governments tendency to hold negative attitudes towards new market entrants that do not abide by regulatory rules exacerbates the issue. As a result, faced with the need to regulate and pressure from established interest groups, the government may issue an initial regulatory announcement to regulate platform businesses. The initial regulatory announcement by the government to regulate platform businesses is often met with opposition from established interest groups and the governments own regulatory will. However, some platform businesses without formal interest groups have been successful in adjusting these regulations. This raises the question of why some of them have been able to affect the governments initial regulatory direction despite the challenges. Given that platform businesses operate through online, they are unlikely to form formal interest groups, leaving them at a disadvantage in terms of their ability to influence policy decisions. Nonetheless, there are instances where the government has altered its initial regulatory intent in regards to specific platform businesses. This leads to the research question of this study, which is: Why do some platform businesses succeed in affecting the governments initial regulatory direction in the face of opposition from established interest groups and the governments regulatory will? In this study, I propose the concept of the IIG (Invisible Interest Group) to answer the question of why some platform businesses are successful in influencing government regulations. This informal interest group is made up of both primary and secondary groups, and operates without a formal structure or membership. It is characterized by its unique organizational format, political purpose, participant characteristics, and mobilization features. Comprised of voluntarily mobilized online-based masses, the invisible interest group supports platform businesses in affecting the government's regulatory process. Its objective is to sway the governments initial regulatory intentions through ad hoc online mobilizations that are supported by a diverse range of participants, including platform business service providers and consumers. The IIG is a new form of interest group that differs from both traditional interest groups and online-based social movements. Unlike traditional interest groups, which are collections of individuals with similar interests pursuing a single goal, the IIG consists of participants with shared goals and differentiated interests. The primary group of the IIG is made up mainly of platform business employees and producers, whose internal goals are to secure their own direct interests by supporting a particular platform company. The derivative group, made up of consumers and the general public, participates in the IIGs activities to secure indirect public benefits from using platform business services. The IIGs mobilization of the mass public aligns it with public interest groups, as it seeks to represent the interests of both consumers and the public. This represents a new and unique form of interest group that challenges traditional views of interest groups and demonstrates the potential for the mass public to actively participate in the political process. The organizational format of the IIG is a unique combination of traditional interest groups and online-based social movement features. Unlike conventional interest groups, the IIG lacks a formal structure and is comprised of producers and consumers who voluntarily come together online. Despite its informal nature, the formation of the IIG is reminiscent of traditional interest groups, as it is initiated by an announcement from a specific platform business calling for supporters to resist government regulation. However, unlike other forms of collective action, the IIG is not immediately apparent and only becomes visible in response to official policy announcements from the government that threaten the interests of its participants through proposed regulatory measures. In response, IIG members mobilize voluntarily to form ad hoc online activities in support of the specific private interests of the platform business, aimed at securing their direct or indirect interests. Moreover, the IIG is a unique form of collective action, as it achieves its goals through discouraging the government from implementing regulations that would negatively impact existing platform businesses. This focus on preventing regulatory change sets the IIG apart from other forms of collective action, which typically aim to influence policymaking by pushing for the creation or modification of policies that better align with their interests. The success of the IIG in preventing government intervention in the market is a noteworthy aspect of the policymaking process, as previous research has demonstrated the ability of collective action to shape government policies. In this sense, the IIG provides a new lens through which to understand the influence of interest groups on the policymaking process, highlighting the power of groups to prevent regulatory change as well as push for it. The success of the IIG in influencing government regulations is contingent upon the magnitude of the political pressure exerted by it. This study proposes that the size of political pressure can be evaluated through three key variables: mobilization, organization, and political messaging power. These variables play a crucial role in determining the governments response in instances of intense conflict between platform businesses and established interest groups or government entities. Mobilization power refers to the potential manpower that a platform business can leverage, as well as the actual number of participants in the mobilization activities. It encompasses an estimation of the relative number of producers and consumers who utilize the platform business services to calculate the available manpower. Organization power pertains to the centralization of the IIGs activities, implying an evaluation of the concentration of influential activities through focusing its influence through a limited number of channels. The level of organizing power can be gauged through the number of representative online petitions initiated by the platform business or its supporters, as well as through online campaigns that involve social media message posting. Additionally, the amount of time required to achieve the mobilization target and the repetition of mobilization efforts for the same issue over time are also important factors to consider. Finally, political messaging power refers to the IIGs ability to formulate effective political messages that resonate with its participants. This variable can be analyzed through an examination of the shared messages among IIG participants and the political timing of their activities. The political messaging power of the IIG is crucial in determining its ability to effectively communicate its goals and objectives to relevant stakeholders. The study aims to examine the impact of the IIG on the platform business regulatory process through a comparative case study of Korean cryptocurrency exchanges and Uber in four global cities: Seoul, New York, London, and Paris. The research utilized a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative analysis through social media data and text analysis, as well as qualitative analysis through expert interviews. The results of the study indicate that the size and influence of the IIG are dependent on their mobilization power, organizing power, and political messaging power. When the government announces regulatory intentions, platform businesses tend to mobilize their service users to form an IIG, with the aim of influencing the regulatory process. The study findings suggest that the greater the political power of the IIG, the more likely it is to affect the governments initial regulatory intentions. The study findings demonstrate that platform businesses tend to form an IIG in response to regulatory threats. The effectiveness of the IIG in influencing government regulation is contingent upon its ability to exhibit a higher potential for political influence relative to established interest groups. The size and potency of the IIGs participants, which encompass both producers and consumers, and the actual number of individuals participating in specific mobilization activities initiated by the platform business, are crucial determinants of the IIGs influence in the regulatory process. The results of the study indicate that the success of the IIGs lies primarily in their ability to mobilize and organize their participants effectively. The number of producers and consumers, as well as the number of participants in a representative online petition, emerged as key factors in the success of the IIGs. The case studies of Korean cryptocurrency exchanges and Uber in New York and London provide evidence of the significance of having a substantial user base, whether producers or consumers, and the ability to quickly gather tens to hundreds of thousands of signatures within a few days of a government announcement. These findings highlight the importance of mobilization and organizing power in the success of the IIGs in influencing government regulation. This study contributes to the political science literature by exploring the newly emerging phenomenon of IIGs in the digital era and their impact on the regulatory process. The paper presents a unique perspective by proposing a new framework for analyzing the emergence of digital technology-based entities and their effect on established political and economic structures. The traditional political science discipline has faced challenges in comprehending these new developments, and this research endeavors to bridge this gap by introducing a new concept of interest groups and providing a theoretical lens for political scientists to examine political issues in the rapidly evolving digital era. The study represents an advancement in the academic discourse within traditional political science and lays the foundation for further research in this area.Chapter 1. Introduction 13 Chapter 2. The Rise of the New Interest Groups 19 2.1. Platform Business Politics as the Political Disruption 19 2.2. Limitations in Interest Group and Social Movement Discourse 27 2.3. Introduction of the IIG 34 2.4. Definition of the IIG 43 2.5. The IIGs Influence on the Regulatory Process 44 2.5.1. Existing Research Methodology 45 2.5.2. Modified Research Methodology 48 Chapter 3. The IIG Mobilizations and Their Impacts as Unprecedented Interest Groups 53 3.1. Key Success Factors of the IIG 53 3.2. Mobilization Factors of the IIG 59 Chapter 4. Case Selection and Case Analysis Methodology 63 4.1. Case Selection Criteria 63 4.2. Case Analysis Methodology 69 4.2.1. Mobilization Power Analysis 69 4.2.2. Organizing Power Analysis 72 4.2.3. Political Messaging Power Analysis 73 Chapter 5. Platform Business Case Studies 75 5.1. Case Study of Korean Cryptocurrency Exchanges (2018) 75 5.1.1. Case Introduction 75 5.1.2. The Governments Challenges with Cryptocurrency Issues 78 5.1.3. The Governments Initial Regulatory Announcement 79 5.1.4. The Emergence and the Impacts of the IIG 81 5.1.5. The IIGs Expansion and Increasing Political Pressure 84 5.1.6. The Governments Regulatory Reversal 93 5.1.7. The Government Assessment of the IIG Influence 93 5.1.8. Case Conclusion 95 5.2. Case Study of Uber in Seoul (2015) 98 5.2.1. [Background Information] Taxi Industry Regulation 99 5.2.2. Case Introduction 103 5.2.3. The Governments Initial Regulatory Announcement 105 5.2.4. The Emergence of the IIG and its Low Impacts 108 5.2.5. The Governments Maintenance of Announced Policy 110 5.2.6. The Government Assessment of the IIG Influence 111 5.2.7. Case Conclusion 112 5.3. Supplementary Uber Case Study (1): New York, 2015 114 5.3.1. [Background Information] Uber Cases in Global Cities 114 5.3.2. New York Case Introduction 115 5.3.3. The Governments Initial Regulatory Announcement 118 5.3.4. The Rise of the IIG and Its Swift Responsiveness 120 5.3.5. The Governments Response 133 5.3.6. Case Conclusion 133 5.4. Supplementary Uber Case Study (2): London, 2015 135 5.4.1. Case Introduction 135 5.4.2. The Governments Initial Regulatory Announcement 138 5.4.3. The Emergence of the IIG and its Continuous Impacts 139 5.4.4. Governments Final Decision 151 5.4.5. Case Conclusion 153 5.5. Supplementary Uber Case Study (3): Paris, 2015 155 5.5.1. Case Introduction 155 5.5.2. The Governments Initial Regulatory Announcement 160 5.5.3. The Emergence of IIG and Its Subpar Participation 162 5.5.4. Ubers Resistance and the Governments Strong Sanctions 170 5.5.5. Case Conclusion 171 5.6. Summary 172 Chapter 6. Conclusion 175 Bibliography 182 Abstract in Korean 203๋ฐ•

    Water scarcity and user behavior:Economics of Cooperation under extraction caps

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    Fresh water is a scarce and depletable resource that has been studied by analyzing declinations of groundwater tables in various regions throughout the world. Climate change effects on water resources are pressing all types of water users to implement adaptation measures. So far, the management of groundwater has been mainly studied from the supply-side and engineering perspectives. This is necessary, but not sufficient to solve the problem of overexploitation of groundwater resource. There has been less research on the demand side of the problem, on how to induce cooperation among users to conserve water resources. Water scarcity in a location results when extraction rates of users, exceed the available water stock and the recharge capacity of the aquifer. Therefore, adaptation to water scarcity depends on how the water users adjust their water extraction - over time - to the recharge capacity of the aquifer. This requires water users to have knowledge on water extraction volumes of all water users of the aquifer, and the recharging capacity of the aquifer. Based on this information, water users might consider the connection between water inflows, outflows and stock determinants of the water balance, as a key concept for sustainability of ground water resource management. This research was focused upon the demand side of water scarcity in three Colombian municipalities Corozal (Sucre), Guamal (Magdalena), and Riohacha (La Guajira) with the objective to better understand the nature of cooperation among water users. This researcher analyzed drivers of cooperation, behavior and institutional mechanisms, using complementary lenses of common pool resource theory, behavioral economics and institutional economics. This general research question used for structuring this research was: 1. How does information on water scarcity affects the extraction behavior of water users, and how can current information provision strategies be improved? Subquestions involve: 2. What are the main drivers and inhibitors of cooperation among water users in water management systems in dry regions?3. How do social rules coexist with legal rules in the overexploitation of aquifers in dry regions?4. How does egoistic behavior and free riding from neighbor users affect collective action in the adaptation to climate variability?The research strategy to collect empirical data involved field experiments, review of historical documents on institutional developments in water management in Sucre and la Guajira, and interviews of water users. Experimental sessions were designed to understand the decision-making processes of farmers, by providing them information on competing extraction sources and information on well capacity. The effect of information on decision-making was measured as part of the experiments. For each type of information, two experimental groups, were organized: (i) information on water extraction quantity was provided to all participants and free communication was allowed, and (ii) information on time remaining before aquifer exhaustion. In the two control groups, as part of the experiment, communication among participants was limited and also, allowed to test the effects of the possibility to design agreed upon decisions on extractions.The field experiments were implemented as games in which players were asked to allocate water caps under diverse scenarios of depletion including suggestions to extract a balanced volume of water or take into account the remaining time for sustainable aquifer management. Participants were asked to allocate water resources for their current and future use, for themselves and their neighbors. Collaborative behavior of participants was tested by measuring compliance with suggested water extraction caps. In total 62 farmers representing 10 communities participated in the field experiments, took part in 668 experimental rounds, based upon 2,670 observations used for empirical data analysis. The qualitative analyses included 40 semi-structured interviews with selected participants. Both quantitative analyses of data obtained through the field experiments, and qualitative data resulting from semi-structured interviews, provided the evidence for answering the research questions<br/

    Foreword to Routledge Handbook of Global Land and Resource Grabbing

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    Co-designing Collaborative Care Work through Ethnography

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