282 research outputs found
Rate-splitting multiple access for non-terrestrial communication and sensing networks
Rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA) has emerged as a powerful and flexible
non-orthogonal transmission, multiple access (MA) and interference management
scheme for future wireless networks. This thesis is concerned with the application of
RSMA to non-terrestrial communication and sensing networks. Various scenarios
and algorithms are presented and evaluated.
First, we investigate a novel multigroup/multibeam multicast beamforming strategy
based on RSMA in both terrestrial multigroup multicast and multibeam satellite
systems with imperfect channel state information at the transmitter (CSIT). The
max-min fairness (MMF)-degree of freedom (DoF) of RSMA is derived and shown
to provide gains compared with the conventional strategy. The MMF beamforming
optimization problem is formulated and solved using the weighted minimum mean
square error (WMMSE) algorithm. Physical layer design and link-level simulations
are also investigated. RSMA is demonstrated to be very promising for multigroup
multicast and multibeam satellite systems taking into account CSIT uncertainty
and practical challenges in multibeam satellite systems.
Next, we extend the scope of research from multibeam satellite systems to satellite-
terrestrial integrated networks (STINs). Two RSMA-based STIN schemes are
investigated, namely the coordinated scheme relying on CSI sharing and the co-
operative scheme relying on CSI and data sharing. Joint beamforming algorithms
are proposed based on the successive convex approximation (SCA) approach to
optimize the beamforming to achieve MMF amongst all users. The effectiveness and
robustness of the proposed RSMA schemes for STINs are demonstrated.
Finally, we consider RSMA for a multi-antenna integrated sensing and communications (ISAC) system, which simultaneously serves multiple communication users
and estimates the parameters of a moving target. Simulation results demonstrate
that RSMA is beneficial to both terrestrial and multibeam satellite ISAC systems by
evaluating the trade-off between communication MMF rate and sensing Cramer-Rao
bound (CRB).Open Acces
Modelling, Dimensioning and Optimization of 5G Communication Networks, Resources and Services
This reprint aims to collect state-of-the-art research contributions that address challenges in the emerging 5G networks design, dimensioning and optimization. Designing, dimensioning and optimization of communication networks resources and services have been an inseparable part of telecom network development. The latter must convey a large volume of traffic, providing service to traffic streams with highly differentiated requirements in terms of bit-rate and service time, required quality of service and quality of experience parameters. Such a communication infrastructure presents many important challenges, such as the study of necessary multi-layer cooperation, new protocols, performance evaluation of different network parts, low layer network design, network management and security issues, and new technologies in general, which will be discussed in this book
Decentralized Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications through Concurrent Cooperative Transmission
Emerging cyber-physical systems demand for communication technologies that enable seamless interactions between humans and physical objects in a shared environment. This thesis proposes decentralized URLLC (dURLLC) as a new communication paradigm that allows the nodes in a wireless multi-hop network (WMN) to disseminate data quickly, reliably and without using a centralized infrastructure. To enable the dURLLC paradigm, this thesis explores the practical feasibility of concurrent cooperative transmission (CCT) with orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). CCT allows for an efficient utilization of the medium by leveraging interference instead of trying to avoid collisions. CCT-based network flooding disseminates data in a WMN through a reception-triggered low-level medium access control (MAC). OFDM provides high data rates by using a large bandwidth, resulting in a short transmission duration for a given amount of data.
This thesis explores CCT-based network flooding with the OFDM-based IEEE 802.11 Non-HT and HT physical layers (PHYs) to enable interactions with commercial devices. An analysis of CCT with the IEEE 802.11 Non-HT PHY investigates the combined effects of the phase offset (PO), the carrier frequency offset (CFO) and the time offset (TO) between concurrent transmitters, as well as the elapsed time. The analytical results of the decodability of a CCT are validated in simulations and in testbed experiments with Wireless Open Access Research Platform (WARP) v3 software-defined radios (SDRs). CCT with coherent interference (CI) is the primary approach of this thesis.
Two prototypes for CCT with CI are presented that feature mechanisms for precise synchronization in time and frequency. One prototype is based on the WARP v3 and its IEEE 802.11 reference design, whereas the other prototype is created through firmware modifications of the Asus RT-AC86U wireless router. Both prototypes are employed in testbed experiments in which two groups of nodes generate successive CCTs in a ping-pong fashion to emulate flooding processes with a very large number of hops. The nodes stay synchronized in experiments with 10 000 successive CCTs for various modulation and coding scheme (MCS) indices and MAC service data unit (MSDU) sizes. The URLLC requirement of delivering a 32-byte MSDU with a reliability of 99.999 % and with a latency of 1 ms is assessed in experiments with 1 000 000 CCTs, while the reliability is approximated by means of the frame reception rate (FRR). An FRR of at least 99.999 % is achieved at PHY data rates of up to 48 Mbit/s under line-of-sight (LOS) conditions and at PHY data rates of up to 12 Mbit/s under non-line-of-sight (NLOS) conditions on a 20 MHz wide channel, while the latency per hop is 48.2 µs and 80.2 µs, respectively. With four multiple input multiple output (MIMO) spatial streams on a 40 MHz wide channel, a LOS receiver achieves an FRR of 99.5 % at a PHY data rate of 324 Mbit/s. For CCT with incoherent interference, this thesis proposes equalization with time-variant zero-forcing (TVZF) and presents a TVZF receiver for the IEEE 802.11 Non-HT PHY, achieving an FRR of up to 92 % for CCTs from three unsyntonized commercial devices. As CCT-based network flooding allows for an implicit time synchronization of all nodes, a reception-triggered low-level MAC and a reservation-based high-level MAC may in combination support various applications and scenarios under the dURLLC paradigm
Modelling, Monitoring, Control and Optimization for Complex Industrial Processes
This reprint includes 22 research papers and an editorial, collected from the Special Issue "Modelling, Monitoring, Control and Optimization for Complex Industrial Processes", highlighting recent research advances and emerging research directions in complex industrial processes. This reprint aims to promote the research field and benefit the readers from both academic communities and industrial sectors
Optimization of 5G Second Phase Heterogeneous Radio Access Networks with Small Cells
Due to the exponential increase in high data-demanding applications and their services per
coverage area, it is becoming challenging for the existing cellular network to handle the massive
sum of users with their demands. It is conceded to network operators that the current
wireless network may not be capable to shelter future traffic demands. To overcome the challenges
the operators are taking interest in efficiently deploying the heterogeneous network.
Currently, 5G is in the commercialization phase. Network evolution with addition of small
cells will develop the existing wireless network with its enriched capabilities and innovative
features. Presently, the 5G global standardization has introduced the 5G New Radio (NR) under
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). It can support a wide range of frequency
bands (<6 GHz to 100 GHz).
For different trends and verticals, 5G NR encounters, functional splitting and its cost evaluation
are well-thought-out. The aspects of network slicing to the assessment of the business
opportunities and allied standardization endeavours are illustrated. The study explores the
carrier aggregation (Pico cellular) technique for 4G to bring high spectral efficiency with the
support of small cell massification while benefiting from statistical multiplexing gain. One
has been able to obtain values for the goodput considering CA in LTE-Sim (4G), of 40 Mbps
for a cell radius of 500 m and of 29 Mbps for a cell radius of 50 m, which is 3 times higher
than without CA scenario (2.6 GHz plus 3.5 GHz frequency bands).
Heterogeneous networks have been under investigation for many years. Heterogeneous network
can improve users service quality and resource utilization compared to homogeneous
networks. Quality of service can be enhanced by putting the small cells (Femtocells or Picocells)
inside the Microcells or Macrocells coverage area. Deploying indoor Femtocells for 5G
inside the Macro cellular network can reduce the network cost. Some service providers have
started their solutions for indoor users but there are still many challenges to be addressed.
The 5G air-simulator is updated to deploy indoor Femto-cell with proposed assumptions with
uniform distribution. For all the possible combinations of apartments side length and transmitter
power, the maximum number of supported numbers surpassed the number of users
by more than two times compared to papers mentioned in the literature. Within outdoor environments,
this study also proposed small cells optimization by putting the Pico cells within
a Macro cell to obtain low latency and high data rate with the statistical multiplexing gain of
the associated users.
Results are presented 5G NR functional split six and split seven, for three frequency bands
(2.6 GHz, 3.5GHz and 5.62 GHz). Based on the analysis for shorter radius values, the best
is to select the 2.6 GHz to achieve lower PLR and to support a higher number of users, with
better goodput, and higher profit (for cell radius u to 400 m). In 4G, with CA, from the
analysis of the economic trade-off with Picocell, the Enhanced multi-band scheduler EMBS
provide higher revenue, compared to those without CA. It is clearly shown that the profit of
CA is more than 4 times than in the without CA scenario. This means that the slight increase
in the cost of CA gives back more than 4-time profit relatively to the ”without” CA scenario.Devido ao aumento exponencial de aplicações/serviços de elevado débito por unidade de
área, torna-se bastante exigente, para a rede celular existente, lidar com a enormes quantidades
de utilizadores e seus requisitos. É reconhecido que as redes móveis e sem fios atuais
podem não conseguir suportar a procura de tráfego junto dos operadores. Para responder
a estes desafios, os operadores estão-se a interessar pelo desenvolvimento de redes heterogéneas
eficientes. Atualmente, a 5G está na fase de comercialização. A evolução destas
redes concretizar-se-á com a introdução de pequenas células com aptidões melhoradas e
características inovadoras. No presente, os organismos de normalização da 5G globais introduziram
os Novos Rádios (NR) 5G no contexto do 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP). A 5G pode suportar uma gama alargada de bandas de frequência (<6 a 100 GHz).
Abordam-se as divisões funcionais e avaliam-se os seus custos para as diferentes tendências
e verticais dos NR 5G. Ilustram-se desde os aspetos de particionamento funcional da rede à
avaliação das oportunidades de negócio, aliadas aos esforços de normalização. Exploram-se
as técnicas de agregação de espetro (do inglês, CA) para pico células, em 4G, a disponibilização
de eficiência espetral, com o suporte da massificação de pequenas células, e o ganho
de multiplexagem estatística associado. Obtiveram-se valores do débito binário útil, considerando
CA no LTE-Sim (4G), de 40 e 29 Mb/s para células de raios 500 e 50 m, respetivamente,
três vezes superiores em relação ao caso sem CA (bandas de 2.6 mais 3.5 GHz).
Nas redes heterogéneas, alvo de investigação há vários anos, a qualidade de serviço e a utilização
de recursos podem ser melhoradas colocando pequenas células (femto- ou pico-células)
dentro da área de cobertura de micro- ou macro-células). O desenvolvimento de pequenas
células 5G dentro da rede com macro-células pode reduzir os custos da rede. Alguns prestadores
de serviços iniciaram as suas soluções para ambientes de interior, mas ainda existem
muitos desafios a ser ultrapassados. Atualizou-se o 5G air simulator para representar a
implantação de femto-células de interior com os pressupostos propostos e distribuição espacial
uniforme. Para todas as combinações possíveis do comprimento lado do apartamento, o
número máximo de utilizadores suportado ultrapassou o número de utilizadores suportado
(na literatura) em mais de duas vezes. Em ambientes de exterior, propuseram-se pico-células
no interior de macro-células, de forma a obter atraso extremo-a-extremo reduzido e taxa de
transmissão dados elevada, resultante do ganho de multiplexagem estatística associado.
Apresentam-se resultados para as divisões funcionais seis e sete dos NR 5G, para 2.6 GHz,
3.5GHz e 5.62 GHz. Para raios das células curtos, a melhor solução será selecionar a banda
dos 2.6 GHz para alcançar PLR (do inglês, PLR) reduzido e suportar um maior número de
utilizadores, com débito binário útil e lucro mais elevados (para raios das células até 400 m).
Em 4G, com CA, da análise do equilíbrio custos-proveitos com pico-células, o escalonamento
multi-banda EMBS (do inglês, Enhanced Multi-band Scheduler) disponibiliza proveitos superiores
em comparação com o caso sem CA. Mostra-se claramente que lucro com CA é mais
de quatro vezes superior do que no cenário sem CA, o que significa que um aumento ligeiro
no custo com CA resulta num aumento de 4-vezes no lucro relativamente ao cenário sem CA
Design of VLC and heterogeneous RF/VLC systems for future generation networks: an algorithmic approach
Visible light communication (VLC) has attracted significant research interest within the
last decade due in part to the vast amount of unused transmission bandwidth in the
visible light spectrum. VLC is expected to be part of future generation networks. The
heterogeneous integration of radio frequency (RF) and VLC systems has been envisioned
as a promising solution to increase the capacity of wireless networks, especially in indoor
environments. However, the promised advantages of VLC and heterogeneous RF/VLC
systems cannot be realized without proper resource management algorithms that exploit
the distinguishing characteristics between RF and VLC systems. Further, the problem of
backhauling for VLC systems has received little attention. This dissertation’s first part
focuses on designing and optimizing VLC and heterogeneous RF/VLC systems. Novel
resource allocation algorithms that optimize the sum-rate and energy efficiency performances
of VLC, hybrid, and aggregated RF/VLC systems while considering practical constraints
like illumination requirements, inter-cell interference, quality-of-service requirements,
and transmit power budgets are proposed. Moreover, a power line communicationbased
backhaul solution for an indoor VLC system is developed, and a backhaul-aware
resource allocation algorithm is proposed. These algorithms are developed by leveraging
tools from fractional programming (i.e., Dinkelbach’s transform and quadratic transform),
the multiplier adjustment method, matching theory, and multi-objective optimization.
The latter part of this dissertation examines the adoption of emerging beyond 5G
technologies, such as intelligent reflecting surfaces (IRSs) and reconfigurable intelligent
surfaces (RISs), to overcome the limitations of VLC systems and boost their performance
gains. Novel system models for IRSs-aided and RISs-aided VLC systems are proposed,
and metaheuristic-based algorithms are developed to optimize the configurations of the
IRSs/RISs and, consequently, the performance of VLC systems. Extensive simulations
reveal that the proposed resource allocation schemes outperform the considered benchmarks
and provide performance close to the optimal solution. Furthermore, the proposed
system models achieve superior performance compared to benchmark system models
Open Cell-less Network Architecture and Radio Resource Management for Future Wireless Communication Systems
In recent times, the immense growth of wireless traffic data generated from massive mobile
devices, services, and applications results in an ever-increasing demand for huge
bandwidth and very low latency, with the future networks going in the direction of achieving
extreme system capacity and ultra reliable low latency communication (URLLC). Several
consortia comprising major international mobile operators, infrastructure manufacturers,
and academic institutions are working to develop and evolve the current generation
of wireless communication systems, i.e., fifth generation (5G) towards a sixth generation
(6G) to support improved data rates, reliability, and latency. Existing 5G networks are
facing the latency challenges in a high-density and high-load scenario for an URLLC network
which may coexist with enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) services. At the same
time, the evolution of mobile communications faces the important challenge of increased
network power consumption. Thus, energy efficient solutions are expected to be deployed
in the network in order to reduce power consumption while fulfilling user demands for
various user densities. Moreover, the network architecture should be dynamic according
to the new use cases and applications. Also, there are network migration challenges for
the multi-architecture coexistence networks.
Recently, the open radio access network (O-RAN) alliance was formed to evolve
RANs with its core principles being intelligence and openness. It aims to drive the mobile
industry towards an ecosystem of innovative, multi-vendor, interoperable, and autonomous
RAN, with reduced cost, improved performance and greater agility. However,
this is not standardized yet and still lacks interoperability. On the other hand, the cell-less
radio access network (RAN) was introduced to boost the system performance required for
the new services. However, the concept of cell-less RAN is still under consideration from
the deployment point of view with the legacy cellular networks. The virtualization, centralization and cooperative communication which enables the cell-less RAN can further
benefit from O-RAN based architecture.
This thesis addresses the research challenges facing 5G and beyond networks towards
6G networks in regard to new architectures, spectral efficiency, latency, and energy efficiency.
Different system models are stated according to the problem and several solution
schemes are proposed and developed to overcome these challenges. This thesis
contributes as follows. Firstly, the cell-less technology is proposed to be implemented
through an Open RAN architecture, which could be supervised with the near real-time
RAN intelligent controller (near-RT-RIC). The cooperation is enabled for intelligent and
smart resource allocation for the entire RAN. Secondly, an efficient radio resource optimization
mechanism is proposed for the cell-less architecture to improve the system
capacity of the future 6G networks. Thirdly, an optimized and novel resource scheduling
scheme is presented that reduces latency for the URLLC users in an efficient resource
utilization manner to support scenarios with high user density. At the same time, this radio
resource management (RRM) scheme, while minimizing the latency, also overcomes
another important challenge of eMBB users, namely the throughput of those who coexist
in such a highly loaded scenario with URLLC users. Fourthly, a novel energy-efficiency
enhancement scheme, i.e., (3 × E) is designed to increase the transmission rate per energy
unit, with stable performance within the cell-less RAN architecture. Our proposed
(3 × E) scheme activates two-step sleep modes (i.e., certain phase and conditional phase)
through the intelligent interference management for temporarily switching access points
(APs) to sleep, optimizing the network energy efficiency (EE) in highly loaded scenarios,
as well as in scenarios with lower load. Finally, a multi-architecture coexistence (MACO)
network model is proposed to enable inter-connection of different architectures through
coexistence and cooperation logical switches in order to enable smooth deployment of a
cell-less architecture within the legacy networks.
The research presented in this thesis therefore contributes new knowledge in the cellless
RAN architecture domain of the future generation wireless networks and makes important
contributions to this field by investigating different system models and proposing
solutions to significant issues.Programa de Doctorado en Multimedia y Comunicaciones por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid y la Universidad Rey Juan CarlosPresidenta: Matilde Pilar Sánchez Fernández.- Secretario: Alberto Álvarez Polegre.- Vocal: José Francisco Monserrat del Rí
AN EFFICIENT INTERFERENCE AVOIDANCE SCHEME FOR DEVICE-TODEVICE ENABLED FIFTH GENERATION NARROWBAND INTERNET OF THINGS NETWOKS’
Narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT) is a low-power wide-area (LPWA) technology built on long-term evolution (LTE) functionalities and standardized by the 3rd-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Due to its support for massive machine-type communication (mMTC) and different IoT use cases with rigorous standards in terms of connection, energy efficiency, reachability, reliability, and latency, NB-IoT has attracted the research community. However, as the capacity needs for various IoT use cases expand, the LTE evolved packet core (EPC) system's numerous functionalities may become overburdened and suboptimal. Several research efforts are currently in progress to address these
challenges. As a result, an overview of these efforts with a specific focus on the optimized architecture of the LTE EPC functionalities, the 5G architectural design for NB-IoT integration, the enabling technologies necessary for 5G NB-IoT, 5G new radio (NR) coexistence with NB-IoT, and feasible architectural deployment schemes of NB-IoT with cellular networks is discussed. This thesis also presents cloud-assisted relay with backscatter communication as part of a detailed study of the technical performance attributes and channel communication characteristics from the physical (PHY) and medium access control
(MAC) layers of the NB-IoT, with a focus on 5G. The numerous drawbacks that come with simulating these systems are explored. The enabling market for NB-IoT, the benefits for a few use cases, and the potential critical challenges associated with their deployment are all highlighted. Fortunately, the cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (CPOFDM) based waveform by 3GPP NR for improved mobile broadband (eMBB) services does not prohibit the use of other waveforms in other services, such as the NB-IoT service for mMTC. As a result, the coexistence of 5G NR and NB-IoT must be manageably orthogonal (or quasi-orthogonal) to minimize mutual interference that limits the form of
freedom in the waveform's overall design. As a result, 5G coexistence with NB-IoT will introduce a new interference challenge, distinct from that of the legacy network, even though the NR's coexistence with NB-IoT is believed to improve network capacity and expand the coverage of the user data rate, as well as improves robust communication through frequency reuse. Interference challenges may make channel estimation difficult for NB-IoT devices,
limiting the user performance and spectral efficiency. Various existing interference mitigation solutions either add to the network's overhead, computational complexity and delay or are hampered by low data rate and coverage. These algorithms are unsuitable for an NB-IoT network owing to the low-complexity nature. As a result, a D2D communication based interference-control technique becomes an effective strategy for addressing this problem.
This thesis used D2D communication to decrease the network bottleneck in dense 5G NBIoT networks prone to interference. For D2D-enabled 5G NB-IoT systems, the thesis presents an interference-avoidance resource allocation that considers the less favourable cell edge NUEs. To simplify the algorithm's computing complexity and reduce interference power, the system divides the optimization problem into three sub-problems. First, in an orthogonal deployment technique using channel state information (CSI), the channel gain
factor is leveraged by selecting a probable reuse channel with higher QoS control. Second, a bisection search approach is used to find the best power control that maximizes the network sum rate, and third, the Hungarian algorithm is used to build a maximum bipartite matching strategy to choose the optimal pairing pattern between the sets of NUEs and the D2D pairs. The proposed approach improves the D2D sum rate and overall network SINR of the 5G NB-IoT system, according to the numerical data. The maximum power constraint of the D2D
pair, D2D's location, Pico-base station (PBS) cell radius, number of potential reuse channels, and cluster distance impact the D2D pair's performance. The simulation results achieve 28.35%, 31.33%, and 39% SINR performance higher than the ARSAD, DCORA, and RRA algorithms when the number of NUEs is twice the number of D2D pairs, and 2.52%, 14.80%, and 39.89% SINR performance higher than the ARSAD, RRA, and DCORA when the number of NUEs and D2D pairs are equal. As a result, a D2D sum rate increase of 9.23%, 11.26%, and 13.92% higher than the ARSAD, DCORA, and RRA when the NUE’s number is twice the number of D2D pairs, and a D2D’s sum rate increase of 1.18%, 4.64% and
15.93% higher than the ARSAD, RRA and DCORA respectively, with an equal number of NUEs and D2D pairs is achieved. The results demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed scheme. The thesis also addressed the problem where the cell-edge NUE's QoS is critical to challenges such as long-distance transmission, delays, low bandwidth utilization, and high system overhead that affect 5G NB-IoT network performance. In this case, most cell-edge NUEs boost their transmit power to maximize network throughput. Integrating cooperating D2D relaying technique into 5G NB-IoT heterogeneous network (HetNet) uplink spectrum sharing increases the system's spectral efficiency and interference power, further degrading the network. Using a max-max SINR (Max-SINR) approach, this thesis proposed an interference-aware D2D relaying strategy for 5G NB-IoT QoS improvement for a cell-edge NUE to achieve optimum system performance. The Lagrangian-dual technique is used to optimize the transmit power of the cell-edge NUE to the relay based on the average interference power constraint, while the relay to the NB-IoT base station (NBS) employs a fixed transmit power. To choose an optimal D2D relay node, the channel-to-interference plus noise ratio (CINR) of all available D2D relays is used to maximize the minimum cell-edge NUE's data rate while ensuring the cellular NUEs' QoS requirements are satisfied. Best harmonic mean, best-worst, half-duplex relay selection, and a D2D communication scheme were among the other relaying selection strategies studied. The simulation results reveal that the Max-SINR selection scheme outperforms all other selection schemes due to the high channel gain between the two communication devices except for the D2D communication scheme. The proposed algorithm achieves 21.27% SINR performance, which is nearly identical to the half-duplex scheme, but outperforms the best-worst and harmonic selection techniques by 81.27% and 40.29%, respectively. As a result, as the number of D2D relays increases, the capacity increases by 14.10% and 47.19%, respectively, over harmonic and half-duplex techniques. Finally, the thesis presents future research works on interference control in addition with the open research directions on PHY and MAC properties and a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis presented in Chapter 2 to encourage further study on 5G NB-IoT
A review of commercialisation mechanisms for carbon dioxide removal
The deployment of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) needs to be scaled up to achieve net zero emission pledges. In this paper we survey the policy mechanisms currently in place globally to incentivise CDR, together with an estimate of what different mechanisms are paying per tonne of CDR, and how those costs are currently distributed. Incentive structures are grouped into three structures, market-based, public procurement, and fiscal mechanisms. We find the majority of mechanisms currently in operation are underresourced and pay too little to enable a portfolio of CDR that could support achievement of net zero. The majority of mechanisms are concentrated in market-based and fiscal structures, specifically carbon markets and subsidies. While not primarily motivated by CDR, mechanisms tend to support established afforestation and soil carbon sequestration methods. Mechanisms for geological CDR remain largely underdeveloped relative to the requirements of modelled net zero scenarios. Commercialisation pathways for CDR require suitable policies and markets throughout the projects development cycle. Discussion and investment in CDR has tended to focus on technology development. Our findings suggest that an equal or greater emphasis on policy innovation may be required if future requirements for CDR are to be met. This study can further support research and policy on the identification of incentive gaps and realistic potential for CDR globally
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