On Arabic justification

Justified setting is one of the most common configurations of a block of text. It is found across different cultures, writing systems, and languages. Yet whilst the concept of equalising the width of lines in a column to achieve a rectangular block is shared, the techniques that are employed towards this end are diverse. This paper discusses the justification of Arabic text. It lays out the methods that evolved in manuscript practice and reflects on their interpretation in typography. A short history contextualises how Arabic justification changed under the influence of technology and prepares the ground for a review of the provisions found in current typographic environ-ments. The paper then presents the state-of-the-art of digital text layout for Arabic and queries its suitability. Contemporary tools are then juxtaposed with a review of the justification tech-niques that are found in exemplary models of manual typography, presenting evidence that un-derlines shortcomings of current methods and software implementations. The argument con-cludes with recommendations of best practice aimed at toolmakers and designers of Arabic doc-uments

Typographic design of outdoor signage, restaurant authenticity, and consumers’ willingness to dine:Extending semiotic theory

Purpose Restaurants’ outdoor signage plays an irreplaceable role in attracting potential diners, as it conveys important functional and symbolic meanings of the businesses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of typographic design elements of outdoor signage on consumers’ perceptions of authenticity. This study also tests the linkage between authenticity and willingness to dine, as well as the moderating effect of frequency of dining in ethnic restaurants on the relationship. Design/methodology/approach Using a 2 (simplified vs traditional Chinese characters) × 2 (calligraphy vs computer font) × 2 (vertical vs horizontal text flow) between-subject design, the authors did two experiments with 786 Chinese diners. Restaurant authenticity and willingness to dine are dependent variables, and openness to ethnic cuisine is the control variable. Findings Display characters and text flow significantly affect restaurant authenticity. Furthermore, the results of this study demonstrate that display characters interact with typeface to influence restaurant authenticity. Consumers’ perceived authenticity significantly increases their willingness to dine. The frequency of dining in ethnic restaurants moderates the relationship between restaurant authenticity and willingness to dine. Practical implications Ethnic restaurateurs should pay attention to the outdoor signage design, as it affects potential consumers’ authenticity perceptions. Specifically, in Mainland China, traditional Chinese characters and vertical text direction increase potential consumers’ authenticity perceptions. Originality/value This study extends the semiotic theory and applies the cue–judgment–behavior model in the hospitality literature. This study also provides new understanding of authenticity by identifying the influence of typographic design on authenticity, which confirms the semiotic theory that certain semiotic cues affect consumers’ judgments

The adoption and impact of computer integrated prepress systems in the printing and publishing industries of Kuwait

This research is aimed at developing a comprehensive picture of the implications of digital technology in the graphic arts industries in Kuwait. The purpose of the study is twofold: (1) to explore the meaning of the outcomes of recent technological change processes for the traditional prepress occupations in Kuwait; and, (2) to examine the impact of technology on Arabic layout and design. The study is based on the assumption that technological change is a chain of interactions among the sociological, cultural, political and economic variables. The prepress area in Kuwait has its own cultural, social, economic, and political structure. When a new technology is introduced it is absorbed and shaped by the existing structure. Based on such a dialectical conceptualisation, four major levels of analysis can be distinguished in this study: (1) technological change in the graphic arts industries; (2) the typographic evolution of the Arabic script; (3) the workers themselves as individuals and occupational collectives; and, (4) technology's impact on Arabic publication design. The methodological approach selected for this study can be defined as a dialectical, interpretive exploration. Given the historical perspective and the multiple levels of analysis, this approach calls for a variety of data gathering methods. Both qualitative and quantitative data were sought. A combination of document analysis, participant observation and interviewing allow to link the historical and current events with individual and collective actions, perceptions and interpretations of reality. The findings presented in this study contradicts the belief that the widespread adoption of new production processes is coincidental with continuous advances in scientific knowledge which provide the basis for the development of new technologies. Instead, the changes have been hindered by the lack of untrained personnel, the Arabic software incompatibility, and the lack of informed decisions to successfully implement the technology. Without any doubt, the new technology has influenced Arabic calligraphy, but this does not mean the decay of Arabic calligraphy as an art. As this study shows, the challenge is not to the art, but to the artist

Typographic design of outdoor signage, restaurant authenticity, and consumers’ willingness to dine: extending semiotic theory

YesPurpose: Restaurants’ outdoor signage plays an irreplaceable role in attracting potential diners, as it conveys important functional and symbolic meanings of the businesses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of typographic design elements of outdoor signage on consumers’ perceptions of authenticity. This study also tests the linkage between authenticity and willingness to dine, as well as the moderating effect of frequency of dining in ethnic restaurants on the relationship. Design/methodology/approach: Using a 2 (simplified vs traditional Chinese characters) × 2 (calligraphy vs computer font) × 2 (vertical vs horizontal text flow) between-subject design, the authors did two experiments with 786 Chinese diners. Restaurant authenticity and willingness to dine are dependent variables, and openness to ethnic cuisine is the control variable. Findings: Display characters and text flow significantly affect restaurant authenticity. Furthermore, the results of this study demonstrate that display characters interact with typeface to influence restaurant authenticity. Consumers’ perceived authenticity significantly increases their willingness to dine. The frequency of dining in ethnic restaurants moderates the relationship between restaurant authenticity and willingness to dine. Practical implications: Ethnic restaurateurs should pay attention to the outdoor signage design, as it affects potential consumers’ authenticity perceptions. Specifically, in Mainland China, traditional Chinese characters and vertical text direction increase potential consumers’ authenticity perceptions. Originality/value: This study extends the semiotic theory and applies the cue–judgment–behavior model in the hospitality literature. This study also provides new understanding of authenticity by identifying the influence of typographic design on authenticity, which confirms the semiotic theory that certain semiotic cues affect consumers’ judgments

English speakers' common orthographic errors in Arabic as L2 writing system : an analytical case study

PhD ThesisThe research involving Arabic Writing System (WS) is quite limited. Yet, researching writing errors of L2WS Arabic against a certain L1WS seems to be relatively neglected. This study attempts to identify, describe, and explain common orthographic errors in Arabic writing amongst English-speaking learners. First, it outlines the Arabic Writing System’s (AWS) characteristics and available empirical studies of L2WS Arabic. This study embraced the Error Analysis approach, utilising a mixed-method design that deployed quantitative and qualitative tools (writing tests, questionnaire, and interview). The data were collected from several institutions around the UK, which collectively accounted for 82 questionnaire responses, 120 different writing samples from 44 intermediate learners, and six teacher interviews. The hypotheses for this research were; a) English-speaking learners of Arabic make common orthographic errors similar to those of Arabic native speakers; b) English-speaking learners share several common orthographic errors with other learners of Arabic as a second/foreign language (AFL); and c) English-speaking learners of Arabic produce their own common orthographic errors which are specifically related to the differences between the two WSs. The results confirmed all three hypotheses. Specifically, English-speaking learners of L2WS Arabic commonly made six error types: letter ductus (letter shape), orthography (spelling), phonology, letter dots, allographemes (i.e. letterform), and direction. Gemination and L1WS transfer error rates were not found to be major. Another important result showed that five letter groups in addition to two letters are particularly challenging to English-speaking learners. Study results indicated that error causes were likely to be from one of four factors: script confusion, orthographic difficulties, phonological realisation, and teaching/learning strategies. These results are generalizable as the data were collected from several institutions in different parts of the UK. Suggestions and implications as well as recommendations for further research are outlined accordingly in the conclusion chapter

Redesigning Arabic Learning Books, An exploration of the role of graphic communication and typography as visual pedagogic tools in Arabic-Latin bilingual design

What are ‘educational typefaces’ and why are they needed today? Do Arabic beginners need special typefaces that can simplify learning further? If so, what features should they have? Research findings on the complexity of learning Arabic confirm that the majority of language textbooks and pedagogic materials lead to challenging learning environments due to the poor quality of book design, text-heavy content and the restricted amount of visuals used. The complexity of the data and insufficient design quality of the learning materials reviewed in this practice-based research demand serious thought toward simplification, involving experts in the fields of graphic communication, learning and typeface design. The study offers solutions to some of the problems that arise in the course of designing language-learning books by reviewing selected English learning and information design books and methods of guidance for developing uniform learning material for basic Arabic. Key findings from this study confirm the significant role of Arabic designers and educators in the production of efficient and effective learning materials. Their role involves working closely with Arabic instructors, mastering good language skills and being aware of the knowledge available. Also, selecting legible typefaces with distinct design characteristics to help fulfil various objectives of the learning unit. This study raises awareness of the need for typefaces that can attract people to learn Arabic more easily within a globalized world. The absence of such typefaces led to the exploration of simplified twentieth-century Arabic typefaces that share a similar idea of facilitating reading and writing, and resolving script and language complexity issues. This study traces their historical context and studies their functional, technical and aesthetic features to incorporate their thinking and reassign them as learning tools within the right context. The final outcome is the construction of an experimental bilingual Arabic-English language book series for Arab and non-Arab adult beginners. The learning tools used to create the book series were tested through workshops in Kuwait and London to measure their level of simplification and accessibility. They have confirmed both accessibility and incompatibility within different areas of the learning material of the books and helped improve the final outcome of the practice. The tools have established the significant role of educational typefaces, bilingual and graphic communication within visual Arabic learning

Development of an Arabic Continuous Text Near Acuity Chart

Purpose: Near visual acuity is an essential measurement during an oculo-visual assessment. Continuous text near visual acuity charts measure reading acuity and other aspects of reading performance. Arabic is ranked as the fourth spoken language globally. Yet, there are no standardized continuous text near visual acuity charts in Arabic. The aims of this study are to create and compose a large pool of standardized sentences, to validate these sentences in children and adults and choose a final set with equal readability to use in the development of a standardized Arabic continuous text reading chart, and then to design and validate the first standardized Arabic continuous text near visual acuity chart, the Balsam Alabdulkader-Leat (BAL) chart. Methods: Initially, 90 Arabic pairs of sentences were created for use in constructing a chart with similar layout to the Colenbrander chart. They were created following accepted criteria for creating sentences for near visual acuity charts. They had the same grade level of difficulty and physical length. Fifty-three Arabic-speaking adults and sixteen children were recruited to validate the sentences. Reading speed in correct words per minute (CWPM) and standard length words per minute (SLWPM) were measured and errors were counted. Elimination criteria based on reading speed and errors made in each sentence pair were applied to exclude sentence pairs with more outlying characteristics, and to select the final group of sentence pairs. The final sub-set of validated sentences was used in the construction of three versions of the BAL chart. Eighty-six bilingual adults with normal vision aged 15 to 59 years were recruited to validate the charts. Reading acuity and reading speed in standard words per minute were measured for the three versions of the BAL chart and three English charts (MNREAD, Colenbrander, and Radner charts). The Arabic version of the IReST chart was used to test the validity of the BAL chart in measuring reading speed. ANOVA was used to compare reading acuity and reading speed in standard words per minute. Bland-Altman plots were used to analyze agreement between the charts. Normal visual acuity (0.00 logMAR) was calibrated for the BAL chart with linear regression between the reading acuity of the BAL chart against reading acuity measured with the MNREAD and the Radner charts. Results: Forty-five sentence pairs were selected according to the elimination criteria. For adults, the average reading speed for the final sentences was 166 CWPM and 187 SLWPM and the average number of errors per sentence pair was 0.21. Childrens’ average reading speed for the final group of sentences was 61 CWPM and 64 SLWPM. Their average error rate was 1.71. The Cronbach’s alpha for the final set of sentence pairs in CWPM and SLWPM was 0.986 for adults and 0.996 for children, showing that the final sentences had very good internal consistency. Three versions of the BAL chart were created. Each chart had fifteen print size levels. Average reading acuity for BAL1, BAL2 and BAL3 was 0.62, 064 and 0.65 log-point print respectively (equivalent to -0.08, -0.06 and -0.05 logMAR respectively). These differences in reading acuity among the BAL charts were statistically significantly different (repeated measures ANOVA, p < 0.05), but not considered clinically significant. Average reading acuity for the Colenbrander, MNREAD and Radner charts was -0.05, -0.13 and -0.03 logMAR respectively. The coefficient of agreement for reading acuity between the BAL charts was 0.054 (between BAL1 and BAL2), 0.061 (between BAL2 and BAL3) and 0.059 (between BAL1 and BAL3). Linear regression between the average reading acuity for the BAL chart and the MNREAD and Radner charts showed that 0.7 log-point size is equivalent to 0.00 logMAR. The new BAL chart was labelled accordingly. Mean SLWPM for the BAL charts was 201, 195 and 195 SLWPM respectively and for the Colenbrander, MNREAD and Radner charts was 146, 171 and 146 respectively. The coefficients of agreement for log-SLWPM between BAL1 and BAL2, BAL2 and BAL3 and BAL1 and BAL3 were 0.063, 0.064 and 0.057 log SLWPM respectively. Conclusions: The reliability analysis showed that the final 45 sentence pairs are highly comparable. They were used in constructing three versions of the BAL chart. The BAL chart showed high inter-chart agreement and can be recommended for accurate near performance measures in Arabic for both research and clinical settings

Gurmukhi printing types: an historical analysis of British design, development, and distribution in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

This thesis focuses on the role of British entities involved in the founding and development of printing in the Gurmukhi script, from the inception of printing in this writing system with movable type in 1800, until the beginnings of the digital era in the twentieth century. It traces the material production of Gurmukhi printing types under the changing technologies during this time frame and considers the impacts of various technological limitations on the appearance of the script when printed. Furthermore, it identifies the intent and objectives of those producing founts in a script foreign to them, and considers their approaches for overcoming various cultural, social, and economic obstacles, to determine how successful they were in realising their aims for printing in this writing system. Finally, it presents a comparative analysis of the founts developed during this period to highlight key typographic developments in the printing of Gurmukhi by the individuals and companies under consideration, and determines significant design decisions that influenced and informed subsequent developments. The research draws on largely unexplored primary resources housed in various archives across Britain, that provide a window into the practises and networks for the British type founders under consideration, shedding light on the establishment, organisation, and development of these actors’ operations, the modus operandi, and the networks that enabled and sustained it. This work aims to document a substantial gap in the history of Gurmukhi typographic development and printing, and serve as a contribution to the interrelated fields of typography, printing history, and culture alike

The evolution of the printed Bengali character from 1778 to 1978.

The thesis traces the evolution of the printed image of the Bengali script from its inception in movable metal type to its current status in digital photocomposition. It is concerned with identifying the factors that influenced the shaping of the Bengali character by examining the most significant Bengali type designs in their historical context, and by analyzing the composing techniques employed during the past two centuries for printing the script. Introduction: The thesis is divided into three parts according to the different methods of type manufacture and composition; 1. The Development of Movable Metal Types for the Bengali Script Particular emphasis is placed on the early founts which lay the foundations of Bengali typography. Part 1 is subdivided into three sections, viz. Europeans in India, European Ventures, and Indigenous Ventures. 2. Mechanical Typefounding and Composition of Bengali In assessing the adaptation of the Bengali script for mechanical composition, attention is paid to those developments which precipitated the transition of printing in India from a craft to an industry. 3. Photocomposition of the Bengali Script The advantages of photocomposition are appraised in relation to new technical constraints imposed on type design. The description of the latest stage in the evolution of the printed Bengali character relates the practical implementation of this study's findings, viz. a new typesetting scheme and typeface design for the Bengali script. The Conclusion considers the new methodology adopted for the development of digital Bengali founts and its relevance to the production of all vernacular typeforms. The Epilogue discusses Bengali typewriter characters and low-resolution character shapes. It also considers the implications of new technology that places the design and production of founts in the hands of the non-professional designer. The thesis is intended to be of interest to the indologist, printing historian, type designer and type manufacturer. It comprises 11 chapters and includes 178 illustrations