Envisioning the Future of Cyber Security in Post-Quantum Era: A Survey on PQ Standardization, Applications, Challenges and Opportunities

The rise of quantum computers exposes vulnerabilities in current public key cryptographic protocols, necessitating the development of secure post-quantum (PQ) schemes. Hence, we conduct a comprehensive study on various PQ approaches, covering the constructional design, structural vulnerabilities, and offer security assessments, implementation evaluations, and a particular focus on side-channel attacks. We analyze global standardization processes, evaluate their metrics in relation to real-world applications, and primarily focus on standardized PQ schemes, selected additional signature competition candidates, and PQ-secure cutting-edge schemes beyond standardization. Finally, we present visions and potential future directions for a seamless transition to the PQ era

On the Role of Hash-Based Signatures in Quantum-Safe Internet of Things:Current Solutions and Future Directions

The Internet of Things (IoT) is gaining ground as a pervasive presence around us by enabling miniaturized things with computation and communication capabilities to collect, process, analyze, and interpret information. Consequently, trustworthy data act as fuel for applications that rely on the data generated by these things, for critical decision-making processes, data debugging, risk assessment, forensic analysis, and performance tuning. Currently, secure and reliable data communication in IoT is based on public-key cryptosystems such as Elliptic Curve Cryptosystem (ECC). Nevertheless, reliance on the security of de-facto cryptographic primitives is at risk of being broken by the impending quantum computers. Therefore, the transition from classical primitives to quantum-safe primitives is indispensable to ensure the overall security of data en route. In this paper, we investigate applications of one of the post-quantum signatures called Hash-Based Signature (HBS) schemes for the security of IoT devices in the quantum era. We give a succinct overview of the evolution of HBS schemes with emphasis on their construction parameters and associated strengths and weaknesses. Then, we outline the striking features of HBS schemes and their significance for the IoT security in the quantum era. We investigate the optimal selection of HBS in the IoT networks with respect to their performance-constrained requirements, resource-constrained nature, and design optimization objectives. In addition to ongoing standardization efforts, we also highlight current and future research and deployment challenges along with possible solutions. Finally, we outline the essential measures and recommendations that must be adopted by the IoT ecosystem while preparing for the quantum world.Comment: 18 pages, 7 tables, 7 figure

Analysis of code-based digital signature schemes

Digital signatures are in high demand because they allow authentication and non-repudiation. Existing digital signature systems, such as digital signature algorithm (DSA), elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA), and others, are based on number theory problems such as discrete logarithmic problems and integer factorization problems. These recently used digital signatures are not secure with quantum computers. To protect against quantum computer attacks, many researchers propose digital signature schemes based on error-correcting codes such as linear, Goppa, polar, and so on. We studied 16 distinct papers based on various error-correcting codes and analyzed their various features such as signing and verification efficiency, signature size, public key size, and security against multiple attacks

Towards Post-Quantum Blockchain: A Review on Blockchain Cryptography Resistant to Quantum Computing Attacks

[Abstract] Blockchain and other Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) have evolved significantly in the last years and their use has been suggested for numerous applications due to their ability to provide transparency, redundancy and accountability. In the case of blockchain, such characteristics are provided through public-key cryptography and hash functions. However, the fast progress of quantum computing has opened the possibility of performing attacks based on Grover's and Shor's algorithms in the near future. Such algorithms threaten both public-key cryptography and hash functions, forcing to redesign blockchains to make use of cryptosystems that withstand quantum attacks, thus creating which are known as post-quantum, quantum-proof, quantum-safe or quantum-resistant cryptosystems. For such a purpose, this article first studies current state of the art on post-quantum cryptosystems and how they can be applied to blockchains and DLTs. Moreover, the most relevant post-quantum blockchain systems are studied, as well as their main challenges. Furthermore, extensive comparisons are provided on the characteristics and performance of the most promising post-quantum public-key encryption and digital signature schemes for blockchains. Thus, this article seeks to provide a broad view and useful guidelines on post-quantum blockchain security to future blockchain researchers and developers.10.13039/501100010801-Xunta de Galicia (Grant Number: ED431G2019/01) 10.13039/501100011033-Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Grant Number: TEC2016-75067-C4-1-R and RED2018-102668-T) 10.13039/501100008530-European Regional Development FundXunta de Galicia; ED431G2019/0

Ring Learning With Errors: A crossroads between postquantum cryptography, machine learning and number theory

The present survey reports on the state of the art of the different cryptographic functionalities built upon the ring learning with errors problem and its interplay with several classical problems in algebraic number theory. The survey is based to a certain extent on an invited course given by the author at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics in September 2018.Comment: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1508.01375 by other authors/ comment of the author: quotation has been added to Theorem 5.

Review on DNA Cryptography

Cryptography is the science that secures data and communication over the network by applying mathematics and logic to design strong encryption methods. In the modern era of e-business and e-commerce the protection of confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA triad) of stored information as well as of transmitted data is very crucial. DNA molecules, having the capacity to store, process and transmit information, inspires the idea of DNA cryptography. This combination of the chemical characteristics of biological DNA sequences and classical cryptography ensures the non-vulnerable transmission of data. In this paper we have reviewed the present state of art of DNA cryptography.Comment: 31 pages, 12 figures, 6 table

Algorithmic Security is Insufficient: A Comprehensive Survey on Implementation Attacks Haunting Post-Quantum Security

This survey is on forward-looking, emerging security concerns in post-quantum era, i.e., the implementation attacks for 2022 winners of NIST post-quantum cryptography (PQC) competition and thus the visions, insights, and discussions can be used as a step forward towards scrutinizing the new standards for applications ranging from Metaverse, Web 3.0 to deeply-embedded systems. The rapid advances in quantum computing have brought immense opportunities for scientific discovery and technological progress; however, it poses a major risk to today's security since advanced quantum computers are believed to break all traditional public-key cryptographic algorithms. This has led to active research on PQC algorithms that are believed to be secure against classical and powerful quantum computers. However, algorithmic security is unfortunately insufficient, and many cryptographic algorithms are vulnerable to side-channel attacks (SCA), where an attacker passively or actively gets side-channel data to compromise the security properties that are assumed to be safe theoretically. In this survey, we explore such imminent threats and their countermeasures with respect to PQC. We provide the respective, latest advancements in PQC research, as well as assessments and providing visions on the different types of SCAs

Post-quantum blockchain for internet of things domain

This thesis was submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy and was awarded by Brunel University LondonIn the evolving realm of quantum computing, emerging advancements reveal substantial challenges and threats to existing cryptographic infrastructures, particularly impacting blockchain technologies. These are pivotal for securing the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems. The traditional blockchain structures, integral to myriad IoT applications, are susceptible to potential quantum computations, emphasizing an urgent need for innovations in post-quantum blockchain solutions to reinforce security in the expansive domain of IoT. This PhD thesis delves into the crucial exploration and meticulous examination of the development and implementation of post-quantum blockchain within the IoT landscape, focusing on the incorporation of advanced post-quantum cryptographic algorithms in Hyperledger Fabric, a forefront blockchain platform renowned for its versatility and robustness. The primary aim is to discern viable post-quantum cryptographic solutions capable of fortifying blockchain systems against impending quantum threats enhancing security and reliability in IoT applications. The research comprehensively evaluates various post-quantum public-key generation and digital signature algorithms, performing detailed analyses of their computational time and memory usage to identify optimal candidates. Furthermore, the thesis proposes an innovative lattice-based digital signature scheme Fast-Fourier Lattice-based Compact Signature over NTRU (Falcon), which leverages the Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) algorithm as a trapdoor sampler to augment its security attributes. The research introduces a post-quantum version of the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain that integrates post-quantum signatures. The system utilizes the Open Quantum Safe (OQS) library, rigorously tested against NIST round 3 candidates for optimal performance. The study highlights the capability to manage IoT data securely on the post-quantum Hyperledger Fabric blockchain through the Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol. Such a configuration ensures safe data transfer from IoT sensors directly to the blockchain nodes, securing the processing and recording of sensor data within the node ledger. The research addresses the multifaceted challenges of quantum computing advancements and significantly contributes to establishing secure, efficient, and resilient post-quantum blockchain infrastructures tailored explicitly for the IoT domain. These findings are instrumental in elevating the security paradigms of IoT systems against quantum vulnerabilities and catalysing innovations in post-quantum cryptography and blockchain technologies. Furthermore, this thesis introduces strategies for the optimization of performance and scalability of post-quantum blockchain solutions and explores alternative, energy-efficient consensus mechanisms such as the Raft and Stellar Consensus Protocol (SCP), providing sustainable alternatives to the conventional Proof-of-Work (PoW) approach. A critical insight emphasized throughout this thesis is the imperative of synergistic collaboration among academia, industry, and regulatory bodies. This collaboration is pivotal to expedite the adoption and standardization of post-quantum blockchain solutions, fostering the development of interoperable and standardized technologies enriched with robust security and privacy frameworks for end users. In conclusion, this thesis furnishes profound insights and substantial contributions to implementing post-quantum blockchain in the IoT domain. It delineates original contributions to the knowledge and practices in the field, offering practical solutions and advancing the state-of-the-art in post-quantum cryptography and blockchain research, thereby paving the way for a secure and resilient future for interconnected IoT systems

Quantum Cryptography Beyond Quantum Key Distribution

Quantum cryptography is the art and science of exploiting quantum mechanical effects in order to perform cryptographic tasks. While the most well-known example of this discipline is quantum key distribution (QKD), there exist many other applications such as quantum money, randomness generation, secure two- and multi-party computation and delegated quantum computation. Quantum cryptography also studies the limitations and challenges resulting from quantum adversaries---including the impossibility of quantum bit commitment, the difficulty of quantum rewinding and the definition of quantum security models for classical primitives. In this review article, aimed primarily at cryptographers unfamiliar with the quantum world, we survey the area of theoretical quantum cryptography, with an emphasis on the constructions and limitations beyond the realm of QKD.Comment: 45 pages, over 245 reference