226 research outputs found
Logistics service providers (LSPs) evaluation and selection: Literature review and framework development
Purpose â The purpose of this paper is to provide an insight to the outsourcing decision-making through investigating if the old evaluation/selection criteria and methods still fit with current business
priorities or not and, therefore, to identify the appropriate criteria and methods to develop a new selection framework. Since the economic recession of 2008, logistics outsourcing decisions have become
more prominent to avoid high fixed costs and heavy investment requirements and to achieve competitive advantages.
Design/methodology/approach â This is a focused literature review prepared after analyzing 56 articles related to the logistics service provider (LSP) evaluation and selection methods and criteria during 2008-2013. The academic articles are analyzed based on research focus/area, evaluation and selection methodology/methods and evaluation and selection criteria. Then reviewed result is compared with previous literature studies for the periods (1991-2008) to identify any possible shifts.
Findings â The review reveals that: several problems in current LSPs literature have been identified; the reviewed papers can be categorized into seven groups, the usage and importance of evaluation and
selection criteria fluctuate during different periods; 12 crucial criteria have been identified, increasing the importance of specific selection methods and the integrated models and fuzzy logic in logistics literature. Then, a comprehensive LSPsâ evaluation and selection framework has been developed.
Originality/value â To the best of our knowledge, this is the first focused logistics outsourcing study that reviews the 2008-2013 period in detail, comparing results with previous literature studies, identifies
current LSPs literature problems/gaps, new trends and shifts in the way that LSPs are evaluated and selected, identifies crucial selection criteria and proposes a new holistic LSPs evaluation and selection framework. In addition, it identifies important issues for future research.
Keywords Supplier or partner selection, Evaluation and selection methods and criteria,
Logistics outsourcing, Logistics service provider, LSP framewor
Sustainable supply chain network design integrating logistics outsourcing decisions in the context of uncertainties
Les fournisseurs de services logistiques (3PLs) possĂšdent des potentialitĂ©s pour activer les pratiques de dĂ©veloppement durables entre les diffĂ©rents partenaires dâune chaĂźne logistique (Supply Chain SC). Il existe un niveau optimal d'intĂ©gration des 3PLs en tant que fournisseurs, pour sâattendre Ă des performances opĂ©rationnelles Ă©levĂ©es au sein de toute la SC. Ce niveau se traduit par la distinction des activitĂ©s logistiques Ă externaliser de celles Ă effectuer en interne. Une fois que les activitĂ©s logistiques externalisĂ©s sont stratĂ©giquement identifiĂ©es, et tactiquement dimensionnĂ©es, elles doivent ĂȘtre effectuĂ©es par des 3PLs appropriĂ©s afin dâendurer les performances Ă©conomiques ; sociales ; et environnementales de la SC. La prĂ©sente thĂšse dĂ©veloppe une approche holistique pour concevoir une SC durable intĂ©grant les 3PLs, dans un contexte incertain dâaffaires et politique de carbone. PremiĂšrement, une approche de modĂ©lisation stochastique en deux Ă©tapes est suggĂ©rĂ©e pour optimiser Ă la fois le niveau d'intĂ©gration des 3PLs, et le niveau d'investissement en technologies sobres au carbone, et ce dans le contexte dâune SC rĂ©siliente aux changements climatiques. Notre SC est structurĂ©e de façon Ă capturer trois principales prĂ©occupations du Supply Chain Management dâune entreprise focale FC (e. g. le fabricant) : SĂ©curitĂ© dâapprovisionnement, Segmentation de distribution, et ResponsabilitĂ© Ă©largie des producteurs. La premiĂšre Ă©tape de l'approche de modĂ©lisation suggĂšre un plan stochastique basĂ© sur des scenarios plus probables, afin de capturer les incertitudes inhĂ©rentes Ă tout environnement dâaffaires (e. g. la fluctuation de la demande des diffĂ©rents produits ; la qualitĂ© et la quantitĂ© de retour des produits dĂ©jĂ utilisĂ©s ; et lâĂ©volution des diffĂ©rents coĂ»ts logistiques en fonction du temps). Puis, elle propose un modĂšle de programmation stochastique bi-objectif, multi-pĂ©riode, et multi-produit. Le modĂšle de programmation quadratique, et non linĂ©aire consiste Ă minimiser simultanĂ©ment le coĂ»t logistique total espĂ©rĂ©, et les Ă©missions de Gaz Ă effet de Serre de la SC fermĂ©e. L'exĂ©cution du modĂšle au moyen d'un algorithme basĂ© sur la mĂ©thode Epsilon-contraint conduit Ă un ensemble de configurations Pareto optimales dâune SC dĂ©- carbonisĂ©e, avant tout investissement en technologie sobre au carbone. Chacune de ces configurations sĂ©pare les activitĂ©s logistiques Ă externaliser de celles Ă effectuer en interne. La deuxiĂšme Ă©tape de l'approche de modĂ©lisation permet aux dĂ©cideurs de choisir la meilleure configuration de la SC parmi les configurations Pareto optimales identifiĂ©es. Le concept de Prix du Carbone Interne est utilisĂ© pour Ă©tablir un plan stochastique du prix de carbone, dans le cadre d'un rĂ©gime de dĂ©claration volontaire du carbone. Nous proposons un ensemble des technologies sobres au carbone, dans le domaine de transport des marchandises, disposĂ©es Ă concourir pour contrer les politiques incertaines de carbone. Un modĂšle stochastique combinatoire, et linĂ©aire est dĂ©veloppĂ© pour minimiser le coĂ»t total espĂ©rĂ©, sous contraintes de lâabattement du carbone; limitation du budget, et la prioritĂ© attribuĂ©e pour chaque Technologie RĂ©ductrice de carbone (Low Carbone Reduction LCR). L'injection de chaque solution Pareto dans le modĂšle, et la rĂ©solution du modĂšle conduisent Ă sĂ©lectionner la configuration de la SC, la plus rĂ©siliente aux changements climatiques. Cette configuration dĂ©finit non seulement le plan d'investissement optimal en LCR, mais aussi le niveau optimal dâexternalisation de la logistique dans la SC. DeuxiĂšmement, une fois que les activitĂ©s logistiques Ă externaliser sont stratĂ©giquement dĂ©finies et tactiquement dimensionnĂ©es, elles ont besoin dâĂȘtre effectuĂ©es par des 3PL appropriĂ©es, afin de soutenir la FC Ă construire une SC durable et rĂ©siliente. Nous suggĂ©rons DEA-QFD / Fuzzy AHP- Conception robuste de Taguchi : Une approche intĂ©grĂ©e & robuste, pour sĂ©lectionner les 3PL candidats les plus efficients. Les critĂšres durables et les risques liĂ©s Ă lâenvironnement dâaffaires, sont identifiĂ©s, classĂ©s et ordonnĂ©s. Le DĂ©ploiement de la Fonction QualitĂ© (QFD) est renforcĂ© par le Processus HiĂ©rarchique Analytique (AHP), et par la logique floue pour dĂ©terminer avec consistance l'importance relative de chaque facteur de dĂ©cision, et ce, conformĂ©ment aux besoins logistiques rĂ©els, et stratĂ©gies d'affaires de la FC. LâAnalyse dâEnveloppement des DonnĂ©es (DEA) Data Envelopment Analysis conduit Ă limiter la liste des candidats, uniquement Ă ceux dâefficiences comparables, et donc excluant tout candidat moins efficient. La technique de conception robuste Taguchi permet de rĂ©aliser un plan d'expĂ©rience qui dĂ©termine un candidat idĂ©al nommĂ© 'optimum de Taguchi' ; un Benchmark pour comparer les 3PLs candidats. Par suite, le 3PL le plus efficient est celui le plus proche de cet optimum. Nous conduisons actuellement une Ă©tude de cas dâune entreprise qui fabrique et commercialise les fours Ă micro-ondes pour valider la modĂ©lisation stochastique en deux Ă©tapes. Certains aspects concernant lâapplication de lâapproche sont reportĂ©s. Enfin, un exemple de sĂ©lection dâun 3PL durable pour sâoccuper de la logistique inverse est fourni, pour dĂ©montrer l'applicabilitĂ© de l'approche intĂ©grĂ©e & robuste, et montrer sa puissance par rapport aux approches populaires de sĂ©lection.The Third-Party Logistics service providers (3PLs) have the potentialities to activate sustainable practices between different partners of a Supply Chain (SC). There exists an optimal level of integrating 3PLs as suppliers of a Focal Company within the SC, to expect for high operational performances. This level leads to distinguish all the logistics activities to outsource from those to perform in-house. Once the outsourced logistics activities are strategically identified, and tactically dimensioned, they need to be performed by appropriate 3PLs to sustain economic, social and environmental performances of the SC. The present thesis develops a holistic approach to design a sustainable supply chain integrating 3PLs, in the context of business and carbon policy uncertainties. First, a two-stage stochastic modelling approach is suggested to optimize both the level of 3PL integration, and of Low Carbon Reduction LCR investment within a climate change resilient SC. Our SC is structured to capture three main SC management issues of the Focal Company FC (e.g. The manufacturer) : Security of Supplies; Distribution Segmentation; and Extended Producer Responsibility. The first-stage of the modelling approach suggests a stochastic plan based scenarios capturing business uncertainties, and proposes a two-objective, multi-period, and multi-product programming model, for minimizing simultaneously, the expected logistics total cost, and the Green House Gas GHG emissions of the whole SC. The run of the model by means of a suggested Epsilon-constraint algorithm leads to a set of Pareto optimal decarbonized SC configurations, before any LCR investment. Each one of these configurations distinguishes the logistics activities to be outsourced, from those to be performed in-house. The second-stage of the modelling approach helps the decision makers to select the best Pareto optimal SC configuration. The concept of internal carbon price is used to establish a stochastic plan of carbon price in the context of a voluntary carbon disclosure regime, and we propose a set of LCR technologies in the freight transportation domain ready to compete for counteracting the uncertain carbon policies. A combinatory model is developed to minimize the total expected cost, under the constraints of; carbon abatement, budget limitation, and LCR investment priorities. The injection of each Pareto optimal solution in the model, and the resolution lead to select the most efficient climate resilient SC configuration, which defines not only the optimal plan of LCR investment, but the optimal level of logistics outsourcing within the SC as well. Secondly, once the outsourced logistics are strategically defined they need to be performed by appropriate 3PLs for supporting the FC to build a Sustainable SC. We suggest the DEA-QFD/Fuzzy AHP-Taguchi Robust Design: a robust integrated selection approach to select the most efficient 3PL candidates. Sustainable criteria, and risks related to business environment are identified, categorized, and ordered. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is reinforced by Analytic Hierarchic Process (AHP), and Fuzzy logic, to consistently determine the relative importance of each decision factor according to the real logistics needs, and business strategies of the FC. Data Envelopment Analysis leads to shorten the list of candidates to only those of comparative efficiencies. The Taguchi Robust Design technique allows to perform a plan of experiment, for determining an ideal candidate named âoptimum of Taguchiâ. This benchmark is used to compare the remainder 3Pls candidates, and the most efficient 3PL is the closest one to this optimum.We are currently conducting a case study of a company that manufactures and markets microwave ovens for validating the two-stage stochastic approach, and certain aspects of its implementation are provided. Finally, an example of selecting a sustainable 3PL, to handle reverse logistics is given for demonstrating the applicability of the integrated & robust approach, and showing its power compared to popular selection approaches. Keywords:Third Party Logistics; Green Supply Chain design; Stochastic Multi-Objective Optimization; Carbon Pricing; Taguchi Robust Design
Rethinking the risk matrix
So far risk has been mostly defined as the expected value of a loss, mathematically PL (being P the probability of an adverse event and L the loss incurred as a consequence of the adverse event). The so called risk matrix follows from such definition.
This definition of risk is justified in a long term âmanagerialâ perspective, in which it is conceivable to distribute the effects of an adverse event on a large number of subjects or a large number of recurrences. In other words, this definition is mostly justified on frequentist terms. Moreover, according to this definition, in two extreme situations (high-probability/low-consequence and low-probability/high-consequence), the estimated risk is low. This logic is against the principles of sustainability and continuous improvement, which should impose instead both a continuous search for lower probabilities of adverse events (higher and higher reliability) and a continuous search for lower impact of adverse events (in accordance with the fail-safe principle).
In this work a different definition of risk is proposed, which stems from the idea of safeguard: (1Risk)=(1P)(1L). According to this definition, the risk levels can be considered low only when both the probability of the adverse event and the loss are small.
Such perspective, in which the calculation of safeguard is privileged to the calculation of risk, would possibly avoid exposing the Society to catastrophic consequences, sometimes due to wrong or oversimplified use of probabilistic models. Therefore, it can be seen as the citizenâs perspective to the definition of risk
Continual improvement: A bibliography with indexes, 1992-1993
This bibliography lists 606 references to reports and journal articles entered into the NASA Scientific and Technical Information Database during 1992 to 1993. Topics cover the philosophy and history of Continual Improvement (CI), basic approaches and strategies for implementation, and lessons learned from public and private sector models. Entries are arranged according to the following categories: Leadership for Quality, Information and Analysis, Strategic Planning for CI, Human Resources Utilization, Management of Process Quality, Supplier Quality, Assessing Results, Customer Focus and Satisfaction, TQM Tools and Philosophies, and Applications. Indexes include subject, personal author, corporate source, contract number, report number, and accession number
Strategic Logistics Outsourcing:Integrated Models for Evaluating and Selecting Logistics Service Providers (LSPs) Upstream/Downstream Supply Chain Comparison
This research aims to maximize the logistics outsourcing benefits through developing new hybrid models for evaluating and selecting Logistics Service Providers (LSPs). The growing demand for logistics outsourcing and the increase in the number and type of LSPs highlight the increasing importance of the LSP evaluation and selection process. Firms use various approaches to evaluate and select their LSP partners. Most of these approaches seem to have overlooked the strategic side of the logistics outsourcing process. Additionally, the uncertainty issue of data, the complexity of the decision and the large number of criteria involved increase the attractiveness of the Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approaches.
A comparative literature review was used in order to identify crucial factors and methods that are used in logistics literature in fragmented ways and therefore, to establish and design a conceptual framework and models for logistics outsourcing. First, a long list of evaluation criteria was developed. Three main dimensions were identified: logistics performance, logistics resources and logistics services. Then a conceptual framework was developed using the three main dimensions with their related factors. Based on the comparative literature review outcomes, a number of integrated models have been developed and used to achieve this aim with emphasis given to FDEMATEL, FTOPSIS and FQFD techniques. Whereas the FDEMATEL technique contributed to construct influence relationships between factors under each dimension, develop impact-relationship maps and identify dependent and independent success factors (ISFs), the FTOPSIS technique used the weighted success factors to evaluate, rank and select the best LSP in three case studies. Twenty-one ISFs have been identified to be used in the final approach. These ISFs consist of eight LKPIs, seven logistics services and six logistics resources and capabilities. All of the factors were used to evaluate and select the best LSP alternative and ISFs were used to conduct the evaluation process. Different sensitivity analysis tests are used to confirm modelsâ robustness. Based on the outcomes of both cases, decision makers can use independent factors alone to evaluate and select the best LSP, which simplified the logistics outsourcing process in our study. The FQFD technique was used to link the LSUs strategic objectives with logistics requirements and the ISFs to develop a new strategic logistics outsourcing approach. Finally, two case studies representing the supply chain upstream and downstream are used to demonstrate the new hybrid approach effectiveness. The comparison of both casesâ findings highlighted their differences in terms of strategic objectives, logistics requirements and ISFs
Revisiting port performance measurement: A hybrid multi-stakeholder framework for the modelling of port performance indicators
This study develops a new port performance measurement model by taking the perspectives from different port stakeholders. The novelty lies in the modelling of interdependencies among port performance measures, and the combination of weights of interdependent measures with both qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the measures from multiple stakeholders for quantitative port performance measurement. It represents an effective performance measurement tool and offers a diagnostic instrument for performance evaluation and/or monitoring of ports and terminals so as to satisfy different requirements of various port stakeholders in a flexible manner. © 201
Sustainable Assessment in Supply Chain and Infrastructure Management
In the competitive business environment or public domain, the sustainability assessment in supply chain and infrastructure management are important for any organization. Organizations are currently striving to improve their sustainable strategies through preparedness, response, and recovery because of increasing competitiveness, community, and regulatory pressure. Thus, it is necessary to develop a meaningful and more focused understanding of sustainability in supply chain management and infrastructure management practices. In the context of a supply chain, sustainability implies that companies identify, assess, and manage impacts and risks in all the echelons of the supply chain, considering downstream and upstream activities. Similarly, the sustainable infrastructure management indicates the ability of infrastructure to meet the requirements of the present without sacrificing the ability of future generations to address their needs. The complexities regarding sustainable supply chain and infrastructure management have driven managers and professionals to seek different solutions. This Special Issue aims to provide readers with the most recent research results on the aforementioned subjects. In addition, it offers some solutions and also raises some questions for further research and development toward sustainable supply chain and infrastructure management
Three essays on urban freight transport: models and tools for effective city logistics projects
The main purpose of these three years of research, summarized in this thesis, was to investigate the obstacles to the development of the city logistics initiatives by seeking solutions to overcome them through model and framework coming from management and transportation engineering. In particular, following a first analysis of a collection of European projects and a systematic analysis of scientific literature, three main gaps in city logistics have been identified: the lack of the stakeholdersâ involvement, the need for data sharing platforms to overcome the current lack of data and the need to define city logistics solutions within the urban ecosystem, making consistent design choices coherently with what is already existing in terms of infrastructures, rules and stakeholders in the context. From these three gaps, three main research questions have arisen:
(RQ1) Is it possible to support stakeholders in analysing CL solutions fitting their necessities applying some already existing and consolidate decision-making methods?
(RQ2) Is it possible to define a database platform in which it is possible to collect, consult and update as many existing data as possible regarding urban freight transport?
(RQ3) How is it possible to optimize city logistics infrastructures in a harmonious and coherent way with respect to the entire city logistics ecosystem?
To answers to the research questions, a collection of articles is illustrated in this thesis work. From time to time different methodologies are used and illustrated, derived from the field of management and transport engineering, these different methodologies, such as the Systematic Literature Review, the House of Quality, a framework for building a data sharing platform, the city logistics Ecosystem and a decision-making support model (based on both a covering model and a Monte Carlo simulation) are described in detail in the various chapters of the thesis.
In this dissertation work for the first time, the main obstacles to the development of city logistics initiatives, that are the lack of involvement of stakeholders, the lack of data, and the lack of an ecosystem vision of urban transport, have been identified and addressed at the same time.
Even if literature sometimes offers some possible solutions to these gaps, few are simple to understand for those who work in the urban freight transport industry, easy to apply and replicable. Both in identifying the gap and in seeking solutions, the solutions showed in this thesis sought to address to those who work in the industry, mainly carriers, retailers, shop owners and public administration representatives, trying to combine scientific research with the search for solutions that can be implemented in practice as requested by such a practical research topic. For this reason, each proposed solution and methodology in this thesis has been implemented and experimented using as a case study the city of Bergamo (and testing its replicability in other European cities such as Saint-Etienne, Luxemburg and Amsterdam). In particular, the initial experience in the âBergamo Logisticaâ project, part of the Bergamo 2.035 smart city research program, gave me the opportunity to understand the main critical issues found by the main actors who work in this field (i.e., carriers, couriers, retailers and institutions), to confirm some evidences that I found in the theory (i.e., main research gaps which originates the research questions) and to search for solutions that could both solve research gaps and optimize the daily logistics activities of the operators.The main purpose of these three years of research, summarized in this thesis, was to investigate the obstacles to the development of the city logistics initiatives by seeking solutions to overcome them through model and framework coming from management and transportation engineering. In particular, following a first analysis of a collection of European projects and a systematic analysis of scientific literature, three main gaps in city logistics have been identified: the lack of the stakeholdersâ involvement, the need for data sharing platforms to overcome the current lack of data and the need to define city logistics solutions within the urban ecosystem, making consistent design choices coherently with what is already existing in terms of infrastructures, rules and stakeholders in the context. From these three gaps, three main research questions have arisen:
(RQ1) Is it possible to support stakeholders in analysing CL solutions fitting their necessities applying some already existing and consolidate decision-making methods?
(RQ2) Is it possible to define a database platform in which it is possible to collect, consult and update as many existing data as possible regarding urban freight transport?
(RQ3) How is it possible to optimize city logistics infrastructures in a harmonious and coherent way with respect to the entire city logistics ecosystem?
To answers to the research questions, a collection of articles is illustrated in this thesis work. From time to time different methodologies are used and illustrated, derived from the field of management and transport engineering, these different methodologies, such as the Systematic Literature Review, the House of Quality, a framework for building a data sharing platform, the city logistics Ecosystem and a decision-making support model (based on both a covering model and a Monte Carlo simulation) are described in detail in the various chapters of the thesis.
In this dissertation work for the first time, the main obstacles to the development of city logistics initiatives, that are the lack of involvement of stakeholders, the lack of data, and the lack of an ecosystem vision of urban transport, have been identified and addressed at the same time.
Even if literature sometimes offers some possible solutions to these gaps, few are simple to understand for those who work in the urban freight transport industry, easy to apply and replicable. Both in identifying the gap and in seeking solutions, the solutions showed in this thesis sought to address to those who work in the industry, mainly carriers, retailers, shop owners and public administration representatives, trying to combine scientific research with the search for solutions that can be implemented in practice as requested by such a practical research topic. For this reason, each proposed solution and methodology in this thesis has been implemented and experimented using as a case study the city of Bergamo (and testing its replicability in other European cities such as Saint-Etienne, Luxemburg and Amsterdam). In particular, the initial experience in the âBergamo Logisticaâ project, part of the Bergamo 2.035 smart city research program, gave me the opportunity to understand the main critical issues found by the main actors who work in this field (i.e., carriers, couriers, retailers and institutions), to confirm some evidences that I found in the theory (i.e., main research gaps which originates the research questions) and to search for solutions that could both solve research gaps and optimize the daily logistics activities of the operators
A COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY BASED ON LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS FOR ON-BOARD PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR MODULES IN VEHICLES
This dissertation presents a novel comprehensive assessment methodology for using on-board photovoltaic (PV) solar technologies in vehicle applications. A well-to-wheels life cycle analysis based on a unique energy, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, and economic perspective is carried out in the context of meeting corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards through 2025 along with providing an alternative energy path for the purpose of sustainable transportation. The study includes 14 different vehicles, 3 different travel patterns, in 12 U.S. states and 16 nations using 19 different cost analysis scenarios for determining the challenges and benefits of using on-board photovoltaic (PV) solar technologies in vehicle applications. It develops a tool for decision-makers and presents a series of design requirements for the implementation of on-board PV in automobiles to use during the conceptual design stage, since its results are capable of reflecting the changes in fuel consumption, greenhouse gas emission, and cost for different locations, technological, and vehicle sizes. The decision-supports systems developed include (i) a unique decision support systems for selecting the optimal PV type for vehicle applications using quality function deployment, analytic hierarchy process, and fuzzy axiomatic design, (ii) a unique system for evaluating all non-destructive inspection systems for defects in the PV device to select the optimum system suitable for an automated PV production line. (iii) The development of a comprehensive PV system model that for predicting the impact of using on-board PV based on life cycle assessment perspective. This comprehensive assessment methodology is a novel in three respects. First, the proposed work develops a comprehensive PV system model and optimizes the solar energy to DC electrical power output ratio. Next, it predicts the actual contribution of the on-board PV to reduce fuel consumption, particularly for meeting corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) 2020 and 2025 standards in different scenarios. The model also estimates vehicle range extension via on-board PV and enhances the current understanding regarding the applicability and effective use of on-board PV modules in individual automobiles. Finally, it develops a life cycle assessment (LCA) model (well-to-wheels analysis) for this application. This enables a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of an on-board PV vehicle application from an energy consumption, Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission, and cost life-cycle perspective. The results show that by adding on-board PVs to cover less than 50% of the projected horizontal surface area of a typical passenger vehicle, up to 50% of the total daily miles traveled by a person in the U.S. could be driven by solar energy if using a typical mid-size vehicle, and up to 174% if using a very lightweight and aerodynamically efficient vehicle. In addition, the increase in fuel economy in terms of combined mile per gallon (MPG) at noon for heavy vehicles is between 2.9% to 9.5%. There is a very significant increase for lightweight and aerodynamic efficient vehicles, with MPG increase in the range of 10.7% to 42.2%, depending on location and time of year. Although the results show that the plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) do not always have a positive environmental impact over similar gasoline vehicles considering the well-to-wheel span, the addition of an on-board PV system for both vehicle configurations, significantly reduces cycle emissions (e.g., the equivalent savings of what an average U.S. home produces in a 20 month period). The lifetime driving cost (4.0 per gallon) assuming battery costs will decline over time. Lifetime driving cost (/kWh) is at least similar, but mostly lower, even in regions with less sunlight (e.g., Massachusetts). In places with low electricity prices (0.13 $/kWh), and with more sunlight, the costs of operating an EV with PV are naturally lower. The study reports a unique observation that placing PV systems on-board for existing vehicles is in some cases superior to the lightweighting approach regarding full fuel-cycle emissions. An added benefit of on-board PV applications is the ability to incorporate additional functionality into vehicles. Results show that an on-board PV system operating in Phoenix, AZ can generate in its lifetime, energy that is the equivalent of what an American average household residential utility customer consumes over a three-year period. However, if the proposed system operates in New Delhi, India, the PV could generate energy in its lifetime that is the equivalent of what an Indian average household residential utility customer consumes over a 33-year period. Consequently, this proposed application transforms, in times of no-use, into a flexible energy generation system that can be fed into the grid and used to power electrical devices in homes and offices. The fact that the output of this system is direct current (DC) electricity rather than alternative current (AC) electricity reduces the wasted energy cost in the generation, transmission, and conversion losses between AC-DC electricity to reach the grid. Thus, this system can potentially reduce the dependency on the grid in third world countries where the energy consumption per home is limited and the grid is unstable or unreliable, or even unavailable
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