Carnap ja tieteiden ykseys

This dissertation concentrates on a particular exemplification of the ideal of the unity of science in the history of twentieth-century philosophy. Taking Rudolf Carnap (1891--1970) as an exemplar of a scholar whose work in philosophy of science was at bottom motivated by the ideal of a unified conception of science, it attempts to distillate the essential characteristics and methodological significance of such a conception by a combination of historical and systematic analysis. Given the conspicuously holoscopic character of Carnap's philosophical orientation, there arises an interesting question about the relation of his work to that of other prominent ``seekers of the wider view'' in the history of philosophy (and history of science). On a more general level, we ask what kind of intellectual and moral characteristics are associated with a scholar who is motivated by the unification of science. Making it explicit: if a coherent conception of a unified conception of science is conceivable, what kind of normative criteria can then be applied to a scholar and his actions? In other words, what are the external and internal qualifications of scholar's vocation under the unified conception of science? In the first part of the dissertation we provide a general account of the problem's background in the intersection of intellectual history and systematics. In the first chapter main emphasis will be put to the dialectic between agent-based and structural explanations in historiography. The survey of a few exemplars of models of historical explanation is intended to provide a background framework for discussing the relation between descriptive analysis and analysis of values. In as much as our modern scientific world conception and the general, essentially human, consciousness of the domain of validity seem to be in a fundamental conflict, a philosophical clarification of the issues that depend on this fundamental distinction is contingent on having proper tools at its disposal. Indeed, it is necessary to acknowledge -- with respect to both scientific knowledge and moral positions -- that the issues of genesis and validity have little in common. Both the image of nature, built upon the masses of scientific and technological knowledge gathered, and the modern conceptions of the moral have developed in the course of history. The lesson that historicism can teach us is the possibility to adopt a symmetrical attitude with respect to the status of the questions of genesis and validity within these (very different) domains. This symmetric attitude enables us to see that the validity of a theory or position (in science or in moral philosophy) cannot depend on the diachronic aspects of its genesis. Rather, it is precisely the case that the late appearance of certain scientific theories and certain moral positions is an index that they are complex and presuppose a great deal genetically, and this is seen to be a common feature of all good theories. Thus, in order to approach the evolution of these ideas from a general perspective, we have to acknowledge their fundamental ontological difference and adopt a variety of tools to study these domains. I present four different approaches to the study of historical phenomena that appertain to the themes of this dissertation. In the second chapter we provide a synopsis of the important thematic about the relationship between morals and science. After a brief examination of the concepts of the moral and the scientific, we proceed to give an account of the concept of scientific self which acts as a kind of normative meta-concept co-ordinating the interaction between the epistemic and the ethical requirements appertaining to the education and professional formation of a scientist. From a historical perspective it is easy to to see that the intension of the concept of scientific self varies according to the contingent factors such as the external conditions of education and the requirements set by new experimental techniques, but the essential, axiologically relevant, internal determinates of the concept are seen to accumulate over time in a conservative manner. Especially interesting here are the determinates that can be traced back to the complementary intellectual traditions of Enlightenment and Romanticism. One of the most important exemplifications of an articulated conception of scientific self can be found in J. G. Fichte's ``Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'' of 1794. In these lectures Fichte develops a beautiful -- and still highly relevant -- conception of the true goals of a scholar as well as the qualifications he must fulfill to attain those goals. From Fichte we turn to study the history of one particular intellectual virtue that has direct relevance for the questions tackled in the second part of the dissertation, viz. tolerance. In the third chapter we focus on the importance of a priori knowledge for both ethics and science. These themes are developed only in their barest outlines in order to provide some theoretical support to the fundamental philosophical thesis of the dissertation concerning the distinction between Is and Ought, and its relevance for the question of the unity of science. We will briefly touch upon the question about the relationship of a priori and empirical knowledge in ethics, and provide a brief synopsis of the relevance of the distinction analytic/synthetic in this domain. Finally we address cursorily the ontologically crucial problem about the moral element in man and present -- with a view to the Enlightenment virtues -- a synopsis of the process of the dissociation of the concept of the moral from the concept of the scientific. We describe the characteristics of ethical impulse in modern times and the quite idiosyncratic view on morals and especially on moral justification advocated by the members of Vienna Circle. We will see how the dissociation of the moral from the domain of the rational discourse inevitably results in the philosophically poverished stance of moral non-cognitivism which Carnap maintained throughout his career. In the second part of the dissertation we can finally address the adduced problem in its particular ramifications in the philosophy of Rudolf Carnap. Given this general problematic, we attempt to vindicate the underlying overall motivation of Carnap's philosophy and to reconstruct the architectonic of Carnap's systematic thought in the light of recent research. One of the main tasks is to evaluate the coherence of interpretations provided in the research literature which place Carnap in the continuum of thinkers that are, in some sense, committed to the ideals and values of Enlightenment. The most explicit rendering of this line of thought is the recent monograph, Carnap and Twentieth-Century Thought, by A.W. Carus which puts Carnap's method of explication on center stage. I critically examine this line of interpretation indicated by Carus and explore more deeply its historical dimensions. Over and above the interpretation of Carus, we assess to what extent Carnap's philosophical program fulfills the criteria that are imposed upon it by the requirement of an Enlightenment conception of unified science. The central significance of logic and mathematics in Carnap's philosophical program is seen to derive from the fundamental conception of Carnap that within the total system of knowledge logic and mathematics are performing the essential role of supplying the forms of concepts, statements, and inferences, forms which are then applicable everywhere, hence also to non-logical knowledge. Therefore, the demarcation between logical and non-logical expressions, along with the Principle of Tolerance and logical pluralism, constitutes one of the central strands of Carnap's thought. Indeed, the Principle of Tolerance and the logicality criterion are seen to be two inextricably entwined aspects of a solution to a fundamental problem that Carnap searches a solution to and which characterizes his aspirations throughout the period under consideration here, i.e. the problem of the rationality of scientific discourse under the variability of linguistic systems of knowledge representation. I depict the overall development of Carnap's philosophy with this central idea continually in focus. As a supplement to the interpretation of Carnap's program as a concerted attempt to look for the fundamental invariants of thought and experience, I provide the view that a necessary condition for implementing his ideal of explication is a coherent formulation of what might be called the task of providing genealogies of important scientific concepts and ideas. This complies with the attractive account represented by Howard Stein about the two basic functions of philosophy, i.e., a distinction between ``the enterprise of knowledge'' and the ``enterprise of understanding''. It is argued here that an essential ingredient of Carnap's method of explication is a variety of philosophical history of science which provides the necessary insight into the problem complex one is tackling with under the purview of explication. Therefore, a significant role is bestowed upon historical knowledge and historiography. I attempt to accommodate this aspect of the ``enterprise of understanding'' within the more explicitly confined ``enterprise of knowledge'' that Carnap was overtly concerned with. However, it is argued that the ``enterprise of understanding'' constituted an equally important aspect of Carnap's philosophical program, although it remained covert in his publications.Väitöskirjan aihepiirinä on tieteen ykseyden ideaalin merkitys Rudolf Carnapin (1891 - 1970) ajattelussa ja tuotannossa, sekä tämän ideaalin ja sen julkilausumattomien ennakkoedellytysten analyysi tieteenfilosofian ja -historian modernissa traditiossa. Keskittymällä Rudolf Carnapin ajatteluun työssä pyritään tuomaan esille tieteen ykseyden ideaalin olennaiset piirteet ja metodologinen merkitys historiallisen ja systemaattisen analyysin valossa. Yleisellä tasolla työssä kysytään, minkälaisia intellektuaalisia ja moraalisia piirteitä voidaan liittää tutkijaan ja hänen työhönsä, erityisesti sellaisen tutkijaan, joka ammentaa vaikutteensa tieteen ykseyden ideaalista. Työssä pyritään eksplikoiman ne normatiiviset ehdot, joita voidaan soveltaa tutkijaan ja hänen työhönsä carnapilaisen tieteenkäsityksen puitteissa; toisin sanoen esitetään ne ulkoiset sekä sisäiset epistemologiset ja moraalifilosofiset kriteerit, jotka tutkijan työtä määrittävät tieteen ykseyden ideaalin mukaisesti. Työn ensimmäisessä osassa tarkastellaan tieteiden ykseyden ja tieteentekijän moraalisen kehityksen välistä suhdetta historiallisesta ja systemaattisesta perspektiivistä. Keskeisenä tieteenhistoriallisena vertailukohtana on objektiivisuuden käsitteen kehitys, jota mm. Lorraine Daston ja Peter Galison ovat ansiokkaasti kuvanneet teoksessaan Objectivity (2007). Sen lisäksi että Daston ja Galison esittävät tieteen metodologiaan liittyviä keskeisiä huomioita objektiivisuuden käsitteen merkityksestä ja soveltamisesta eri aikoina, he asettavat keskeiselle sijalle minän, persoonan tai itsen käsitteen tieteellisessä tutkimusprosessissa. Tarkastelemalla kuinka erilaiset käsitykset itsestä -- ja etenkin nk. "tieteellisestä itsestä" ("scientific self") -- ovat kehittyneet objektiivisuuden käsitteen rinnalla, he päätyvät tulokseen, että ns. episteemiset hyveet ovat kiinteässä vuorovaikutuksessa eettisiin arvoihin sekä yksilön moraaliseen kehitykseen, ja muodostavat välttämättömät ehdot tieteenharjoittamiselle. Episteemisten hyveiden keskeisenä tehtävänä on ohjata tieteellistä tutkimusta siten, että ne vahvistavat tiedonhankinnan pragmaattista tehokkuutta ja edistävät "totuuteen pyrkivää tutkimusta" vetoamalla eettisiin arvoihin -- arvoihin, jotka ohjaavat yksilön intellektuaalista ja moraalista kehitystä ja luovat pohjan erilaisille tavoille ("techniques of the self") harjoittaa kykyjä, taitoja ja taipumuksia, jotka ovat tieteenharjoittamisessa keskeisiä. Historian valossa on selvää, että käsitykset "tieteellisestä itsestä" ovat muuttuneet aikojen kuluessa. Syynä tähän ovat olleet mm. kehittyneet käsitykset objektiivisuudesta sekä tieteen tavoitteista ja menetelmistä. Myös havaintolaitteiden kehityksellä on ollut tässä ratkaiseva merkitys (esimerkiksi kameran (daguerrotypia) ja fonografin keksiminen 1800-luvulla). Erityisen kiinnostavia ovat ne käsitykset itsestä, jotka liittyvät valistuksen ja romantiikan rikkaisiin traditiohin. Yhden merkittävän näkemyksen tieteellisestä itsestä ja tutkijan ammatin merkityksestä esitti J. G. Fichte luennoissaan ``Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'' vuodelta 1794. Näissä luennoissa Fichte esittelee kauniin -- ja edelleen ajankohtaisen -- näkemyksen tieteellisestä tutkimuksesta ja niistä ehdoista, jotka tutkijan tulisi täyttää saavuttaakseen tavoitteensa. Fichten näkemysten esittelyn jälkeen siirrytään tutkimaan yhden Carnapin filosofianäkemyksen kannalta keskeisen käsitteen, suvaitsevaisuusperiaatteen (Principle of Tolerance), historiaa. Lisäksi eritellään niitä apriorisen tiedon ja empiirisen tiedon lajeja, joilla on merkitystä moraalifilosofian kannalta ja toisaalta analyysin käsitteen historiaa siltä osin, kuin se muodostaa olennaisen taustan Carnapin filosofian ja filosofisen metodin ymmärtämiselle. Työn toisessa osassa siirrytään tarkastelemaan eksplisiittisesti Rudolf Carnapin filosofiaa ja sen kehitystä 1900-luvun ensimmäisiltä vuosikymmeniltä 1950-luvulle. Työn ensimmäisessä osassa esitellyn problematiikan valossa yritetään kuvata ja perustella Carnapin filosofianäkemyksen taustalla vaikuttava keskeinen motivaatio sekä esittää hänen ajattelunsa kokonaisrakenne, sen "arkkitektoniikka" viimeaikaisen tutkimuksen pohjalta. Yksi tutkimuksen keskeisiä tavoitteita on arvioida tutkimuskirjallisuudessa esiintyneitä tulkintoja, jotka asettavat Carnapin niiden ajattelijoiden jatkumoon, jotka ovat jossakin mielessä sidoksissa valistuksen traditioon, sen arvoihin ja ideaaleihin. Yksi tässä suhteessa tärkeimmistä tulkinnoista esitetään A. W. Caruksen monografiassa Carnap and Twentieth-Century Thought (2007), joka asettaa Carnapin eksplikaation metodin tutkimukselliseen keskiöön. Arvioin kriittisesti Caruksen tulkintaa ja tutkin syvemmin sen historiallisia ennakkoehtoja ja aatetaustaa. Pyrin arvioimaan sitä, missä määrin Carnapin filosofinen ohjelma täyttää ne ehdot, jotka liittyvät valistukselle ominaiseen tieteiden ykseyden käsitykseen. Logiikan ja matematiikan keskeinen merkitys Carnapin filosofiassa seuraa siitä Carnapin perustavasta näkemyksestä, että tiedon kokonaisesityksessä logiikan ja matematiikan tehtävänä on tarjota käsitteiden, lausumien ja päättelyjen formaaliset mallit (muodot), mallit jotka ovat siten sovellettavissa kaikkialla, myös ei--loogisen tiedon piirissä. Siten jako loogisten ja ei-loogisten ilmaisujen välillä sekä toleranssiperiaate ja tähän liittyvä looginen pluralismi muodostavat Carnapin ajattelun yhden keskeisen säikeen. Kuvaan Carnapin ajattelun kehitystä tämä keskeinen ajatus silmämääränäni. Täydentävänä näkökulmana käsitykselle, että Carnapin ohjelma tarkoitti keskitettyä yritystä etsiä systemaattisesti ajattelun ja kokemuksen perustavia invariansseja, tuon esille näkemyksen, jonka mukaan eksplikaation ideaalin välttämättömänä ehtona on koherentti muotoilu ja määritelmä sille, mitä voitaisiin kutsua tärkeiden tieteellisten käsitteiden ja ideoiden syntyhistorioiden esitykseksi. Tämä on yhdenmukaista sen Howard Steinin esittämän näkemyksen kanssa, jonka mukaan Carnapin filosofiaa luonnehtii kaksi toisiaan täydentävää tutkimuslinjaa. Stein erottelee yhtäältä "tiedon hankkeen" ("enterprise of knowledge") ja "ymmärtämisen hankkeen" ("enterprise of understanding"). Esitän, että olennainen osa Carnapin eksplikaation metodia on filosofisen tieteenhistorian tutkimusote, joka tarjoaa välttämättömät ennakkoedellytykset -- käsitteelliset mahdollisuudet eksplikaatioavaruudessa -- annetun eksplikaatiotoiminnan piirissä. Tästä syystä historiallisella tiedolla ja "ymmärtämisen hankkeella" on keskeinen merkitys Carnapin metodin kannalta, vaikkakin tämä ulottuvuus säilyi pitkälti julkilausumattomana hänen julkaistuissa teoksissaan

Computer Aided Verification

This open access two-volume set LNCS 11561 and 11562 constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Computer Aided Verification, CAV 2019, held in New York City, USA, in July 2019. The 52 full papers presented together with 13 tool papers and 2 case studies, were carefully reviewed and selected from 258 submissions. The papers were organized in the following topical sections: Part I: automata and timed systems; security and hyperproperties; synthesis; model checking; cyber-physical systems and machine learning; probabilistic systems, runtime techniques; dynamical, hybrid, and reactive systems; Part II: logics, decision procedures; and solvers; numerical programs; verification; distributed systems and networks; verification and invariants; and concurrency

Cognitive and Affective Evaluation in Forming Unique Destination Image Among Tourists Visiting Malacca

Since Melaka is positioned as Historical City inaugurated by UNESCO in 2008, the study suggests unique image as a new component of image associations. A number of overseas tourists were selected as samples . Results showed that unique image was significantly constructed and affected by cognitive and affective evaluations. Cognitive evaluation was significantly affected by the types of information source, while affective evaluation was affected significantly by social psychological motivations. The research proves that Melaka has fulfilled the requirements to differentiate the city as a unique tourist destination. The positioning of Melaka as truly Malaysia and World heritage should be translated into the rational benefit of encountering unspoiled historical side and multi-racial living cultures. Positive unique image creation leads to intention to revisit and recommend others experiencing the world heritage and history of Melaka

Computer Aided Verification

This open access two-volume set LNCS 11561 and 11562 constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Computer Aided Verification, CAV 2019, held in New York City, USA, in July 2019. The 52 full papers presented together with 13 tool papers and 2 case studies, were carefully reviewed and selected from 258 submissions. The papers were organized in the following topical sections: Part I: automata and timed systems; security and hyperproperties; synthesis; model checking; cyber-physical systems and machine learning; probabilistic systems, runtime techniques; dynamical, hybrid, and reactive systems; Part II: logics, decision procedures; and solvers; numerical programs; verification; distributed systems and networks; verification and invariants; and concurrency

A framework for the analysis and evaluation of enterprise models

Bibliography: leaves 264-288.The purpose of this study is the development and validation of a comprehensive framework for the analysis and evaluation of enterprise models. The study starts with an extensive literature review of modelling concepts and an overview of the various reference disciplines concerned with enterprise modelling. This overview is more extensive than usual in order to accommodate readers from different backgrounds. The proposed framework is based on the distinction between the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic model aspects and populated with evaluation criteria drawn from an extensive literature survey. In order to operationalize and empirically validate the framework, an exhaustive survey of enterprise models was conducted. From this survey, an XML database of more than twenty relatively large, publicly available enterprise models was constructed. A strong emphasis was placed on the interdisciplinary nature of this database and models were drawn from ontology research, linguistics, analysis patterns as well as the traditional fields of data modelling, data warehousing and enterprise systems. The resultant database forms the test bed for the detailed framework-based analysis and its public availability should constitute a useful contribution to the modelling research community. The bulk of the research is dedicated to implementing and validating specific analysis techniques to quantify the various model evaluation criteria of the framework. The aim for each of the analysis techniques is that it can, where possible, be automated and generalised to other modelling domains. The syntactic measures and analysis techniques originate largely from the disciplines of systems engineering, graph theory and computer science. Various metrics to measure model hierarchy, architecture and complexity are tested and discussed. It is found that many are not particularly useful or valid for enterprise models. Hence some new measures are proposed to assist with model visualization and an original "model signature" consisting of three key metrics is proposed.Perhaps the most significant contribution ofthe research lies in the development and validation of a significant number of semantic analysis techniques, drawing heavily on current developments in lexicography, linguistics and ontology research. Some novel and interesting techniques are proposed to measure, inter alia, domain coverage, model genericity, quality of documentation, perspicuity and model similarity. Especially model similarity is explored in depth by means of various similarity and clustering algorithms as well as ways to visualize the similarity between models. Finally, a number of pragmatic analyses techniques are applied to the models. These include face validity, degree of use, authority of model author, availability, cost, flexibility, adaptability, model currency, maturity and degree of support. This analysis relies mostly on the searching for and ranking of certain specific information details, often involving a degree of subjective interpretation, although more specific quantitative procedures are suggested for some of the criteria. To aid future researchers, a separate chapter lists some promising analysis techniques that were investigated but found to be problematic from methodological perspective. More interestingly, this chapter also presents a very strong conceptual case on how the proposed framework and the analysis techniques associated vrith its various criteria can be applied to many other information systems research areas. The case is presented on the grounds of the underlying isomorphism between the various research areas and illustrated by suggesting the application of the framework to evaluate web sites, algorithms, software applications, programming languages, system development methodologies and user interfaces

What are we missing? An archaeothanatological approach to late Anglo-Saxon burials

Archaeothanatology, a holistic approach conceived in France, examines detailed observations of the spatial positioning of skeletal elements in a grave, to characterize taphonomy and reveal funerary practices that would otherwise be archaeologically invisible. However, archaeothanatology suffers from a lack of comparative case studies exploring the effects of different burial environments upon the decomposition and disarticulation of a human corpse in the grave. Furthermore, investigations into funerary practices applying a taphonomic approach are seldom contained in published reports for burials in England. This has resulted in potentially valuable evidence for funerary practices being overlooked. This study evaluates the utility of archaeothanatology as a tool for reconstructing original burial form from an archaeological grave context, with specific focus on the identification of wooden containers from the late Anglo-Saxon period (c.A.D.6501100). Recent data suggests a variety of different containers for the body were commonly used but identifies so-called ‘plain-earth graves’ as the norm. Many containers will have been constructed entirely from wood, decomposing completely, rendering them archaeologically invisible confounding attempts to explore their prevalence. Presently various inconsistent evidence is used to identify possible wooden containers. A taphonomy-based analysis of skeletons from graves where preserved wood and metalwork provided conclusive evidence for coffins was undertaken. This information, as well as adding to our overall knowledge about decomposition in a wooden container, has been used to develop a tailored method to assist in identifying coffined burials. The method was applied to three cemeteries containing burials without surviving evidence for coffins. The results indicate that the prior default determination of ‘plain-earth’ in a substantial number of burials was flawed. From the sample studied, 41% were identified as decomposing in a void, 28% more than originally identified through evidence from funerary architecture alone. Thus, confirming archaeothanatology can improve burial interpretations and is beneficial to funerary archaeology