Postnatal Experiences Influence How the Brain Integrates Information from Different Senses

Sensory processing disorder (SPD) is characterized by anomalous reactions to, and integration of, sensory cues. Although the underlying etiology of SPD is unknown, one brain region likely to reflect these sensory and behavioral anomalies is the superior colliculus (SC), a structure involved in the synthesis of information from multiple sensory modalities and the control of overt orientation responses. In the present review we describe normal functional properties of this structure, the manner in which its individual neurons integrate cues from different senses, and the overt SC-mediated behaviors that are believed to manifest this “multisensory integration.” Of particular interest here is how SC neurons develop their capacity to engage in multisensory integration during early postnatal life as a consequence of early sensory experience, and the intimate communication between cortex and the midbrain that makes this developmental process possible

Intrinsic connectivity of human superior colliculus

The superior colliculus (SC) is believed to play an important role in sensorimotor integration and orienting behavior. It is classically divided into superficial layers predominantly containing visual neurons and deep layers containing multisensory and premotor neurons. Investigations of intrinsic connectivity within the SC in non-human species initially led to controversy regarding the existence of interlaminar connections between superficial and deep layers. It now seems more likely that such connections exist in a number of species, including non-human primates. In the latter, anatomical data concerning intrinsic SC connectivity are restricted to a limited number of intracellularly labeled neurons. No studies have been conducted to investigate the existence of intrinsic connections of human SC. In the present study, DiI (1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′- tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate) and BDA (biotinylated dextran amine) were two tracers used in post-mortem human brains to examine intrinsic SC connections. Injections into the superficial layers revealed tangential connections within superficial layers and radial superficial-layer to deep-layer connections. Within superficial layers, horizontal connections were found over the entire rostro-caudal axis and were mostly directed laterally, i.e. toward the brachium of the inferior colliculus. Superficial-layer to deep-layer connections were more prominent in sections containing the injection site or located close to it. In these sections, an axon bundle having roughly the same diameter as the injection site crossed all deep layers, and individual axons displayed en passant or terminal boutons. The present results suggest that intrinsic connections within superficial layers and radial superficial-layers to deep-layers exist in human SC. The putative roles of these connections are discussed with regard to visual receptive field organization, as well as visuomotor and multisensory integratio

Cortical Integration of Vestibular and Visual Cues for Navigation, Visual Processing, and Perception

Despite increasing evidence of its involvement in several key functions of the cerebral cortex, the vestibular sense rarely enters our consciousness. Indeed, the extent to which these internal signals are incorporated within cortical sensory representation and how they might be relied upon for sensory-driven decision-making, during, for example, spatial navigation, is yet to be understood. Recent novel experimental approaches in rodents have probed both the physiological and behavioral significance of vestibular signals and indicate that their widespread integration with vision improves both the cortical representation and perceptual accuracy of self-motion and orientation. Here, we summarize these recent findings with a focus on cortical circuits involved in visual perception and spatial navigation and highlight the major remaining knowledge gaps. We suggest that vestibulo-visual integration reflects a process of constant updating regarding the status of self-motion, and access to such information by the cortex is used for sensory perception and predictions that may be implemented for rapid, navigation-related decision-making

Intrinsic connectivity of human superior colliculus.

The superior colliculus (SC) is believed to play an important role in sensorimotor integration and orienting behavior. It is classically divided into superficial layers predominantly containing visual neurons and deep layers containing multisensory and premotor neurons. Investigations of intrinsic connectivity within the SC in non-human species initially led to controversy regarding the existence of interlaminar connections between superficial and deep layers. It now seems more likely that such connections exist in a number of species, including non-human primates. In the latter, anatomical data concerning intrinsic SC connectivity are restricted to a limited number of intracellularly labeled neurons. No studies have been conducted to investigate the existence of intrinsic connections of human SC. In the present study, DiI (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'- tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate) and BDA (biotinylated dextran amine) were two tracers used in post-mortem human brains to examine intrinsic SC connections. Injections into the superficial layers revealed tangential connections within superficial layers and radial superficial-layer to deep-layer connections. Within superficial layers, horizontal connections were found over the entire rostro-caudal axis and were mostly directed laterally, i.e. toward the brachium of the inferior colliculus. Superficial-layer to deep-layer connections were more prominent in sections containing the injection site or located close to it. In these sections, an axon bundle having roughly the same diameter as the injection site crossed all deep layers, and individual axons displayed en passant or terminal boutons. The present results suggest that intrinsic connections within superficial layers and radial superficial-layers to deep-layers exist in human SC. The putative roles of these connections are discussed with regard to visual receptive field organization, as well as visuomotor and multisensory integration

A Synaptic Strategy for Consolidation of Convergent Visuotopic Maps

The mechanisms by which experience guides refinement of converging afferent pathways are poorly understood. We describe a vision-driven refinement of corticocollicular inputs that determines the consolidation of retinal and visual cortical (VC) synapses on individual neurons in the superficial superior colliculus (sSC). Highly refined corticocollicular terminals form 1–2 days after eye-opening (EO), accompanied by VC-dependent filopodia sprouting on proximal dendrites, and PSD-95 and VC-dependent quadrupling of functional synapses. Delayed EO eliminates synapses, corticocollicular terminals, and spines on VC-recipient dendrites. Awake recordings after EO show that VC and retina cooperate to activate sSC neurons, and VC light responses precede sSC responses within intervals promoting potentiation. Eyelid closure is associated with more protracted cortical visual responses, causing the majority of VC spikes to follow those of the colliculus. These data implicate spike-timing plasticity as a mechanism for cortical input survival, and support a cooperative strategy for retinal and cortical coinnervation of the sSC.National Institutes of Health (U.S.) (Grant EY006039

Histological effects of chronic administration of Phyllanthus amarus on the superior colliculus of adult wistar rats

Effects of administration of Phyllanthus amarus commonly used for the treatment of jaundice, diarrhea, dysentery, urogenital disease and wound on the superior colliculus of adult wistar rats was carefully studied. Rats of both sexes (n = 24), with average weight of 200 g were randomly assigned into two treatments (A and B) and control (C) groups of 8 rats each. The rats in the treatment groups (A and B) received 400 and 800 mg of aqueous extract of P. amarus per kg body weight respectively through theorogastric tube administration daily for thirty days. The control group received equal volume of distilled water daily for thirty days through the same route. The rats were fed with growers marsh obtained from Edo Feeds and Flour mill Limited, Ewu, Edo State, Nigeria and given water liberally. The rats were sacrificed by cervical dislocation on the thirty-one days of the experiment. The superior colliculus was carefully dissected out and quickly fixed in 10% formal saline for histological study. The findingsindicate that rats in the treated groups (A and B) showed some cellular degenerative changes, hypertrophy, sparse cellular population and vacuolations in the stroma of the superior colliculus as compared to the control group. Chronic administration of P. amarus may therefore have an adverse effect on the visual and somatosensory motor sensibilities by affecting the microanatomy of the superior colliculus of adult wistar rats. It is recommended for further studies aimed at corroborating these observations

Uncovering Multisensory Processing through Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation

Most of current knowledge about the mechanisms of multisensory integration of environmental stimuli by the human brain derives from neuroimaging experiments. However, neuroimaging studies do not always provide conclusive evidence about the causal role of a given area for multisensory interactions, since these techniques can mainly derive correlations between brain activations and behavior. Conversely, techniques of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) represent a unique and powerful approach to inform models of causal relations between specific brain regions and individual cognitive and perceptual functions. Although NIBS has been widely used in cognitive neuroscience, its use in the study of multisensory processing in the human brain appears a quite novel field of research. In this paper, we review and discuss recent studies that have used two techniques of NIBS, namely transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation, for investigating the causal involvement of unisensory and heteromodal cortical areas in multisensory processing, the effects of multisensory cues on cortical excitability in unisensory areas, and the putative functional connections among different cortical areas subserving multisensory interactions. The emerging view is that NIBS is an essential tool available to neuroscientists seeking for causal relationships between a given area or network and multisensory processes. With its already large and fast increasing usage, future work using NIBS in isolation, as well as in conjunction with different neuroimaging techniques, could substantially improve our understanding of multisensory processing in the human brain

Functional neuroanatomy of visual pathways involving the pulvinar

Les neurones du cortex visuel primaire (V1) peuvent emprunter deux voies de communications afin d’atteindre les aires extrastriées : une voie cortico-corticale, et une voie cortico-thalamo-corticale à travers des noyaux thalamiques de haut niveau (HO) comme le pulvinar. Les fonctions respectives de ces deux voies restent toujours méconnues. Un pas vers une meilleure compréhension de celles-ci seraient d’investiguer la nature des signaux qu’elles transmettent. Dans ce contexte, deux grands types de projections cortico-thalamiques (CT) ont été identifiés dans le système visuel : les neurones de type I (modulator) et type II (driver) caractérisés respectivement par des axones minces dotés de petits boutons terminaux et par des axones plus épais et de plus grands boutons respectivement. Une proposition récente a aussi émis l'hypothèse que ces deux types pourraient également être distingués par leur expression de transporteur de glutamate vésiculaire. Cette hypothèse suggère que les projections de type II et de type I peuvent exprimer sélectivement VGLUT2 et VGLUT1, respectivement (Balaram, 2013; Rovo et al, 2012). Chez le chat, les projections de V1 vers le pulvinar se composent principalement de terminaux de type II, tandis que celles de l’aire PMLS présentent une combinaison de terminaux de type I et II suggérant ainsi que, la proportion de terminaux de type I augmente avec le niveau hiérarchique cortical des zones visuelles. Afin de tester cette hypothèse, nous avons cartographié la distribution des terminaux CT du cortex AEV (article 1) ainsi que de l’aire 21a (article 2). Nous avons aussi étudié l’expression de VGLUT 1 et 2 dans le système visuel du chat afin de tester si leurs expressions corrèlent avec les sites de projections de neurones de type I et II (article 3). Nos résultats indiquent que la grande majorité des terminaux marqués dans le pulvinar provenant de l’AEV et de l’aire 21a sont de type I (Article 1 et 2) alors que ceux de V1 sont majoritairement de type II. Une comparaison de la proportion des projections de type I à travers les aires V1, PMLS, 21a et AEV révèlent une corrélation positive de sorte que celle-ci augmente avec le degré hiérarchique des aires visuelles. Nos résultats indiquent que VGLUT 1 et 2 présentent une distribution complémentaire et que leur localisation dans des sites connus pour recevoir une projection de type ‘modulateur’ et ‘déclencheur’ proéminente suggère que leurs expressions peuvent montrer un biais pour celles-ci dans la voie géniculo-strié. Les résultats de cette thèse ont permis de mieux connaitre la nature des projections CT des aires visuelles extrastriées. Ces résultats sont d’autant plus importants qu’ils établissent un lien entre la nature de ces projections et le degré hiérarchique des aires visuelles, suggérant ainsi l’existence une organisation anatomofonctionnelle des voies CT passant par le pulvinar. Enfin, les résultats de cette thèse ont aussi permis une meilleure compréhension des vésicules VGLUT 1 et 2 dans le système visuel du chat et leurs affinités respectives pour les sites de projections de neurones de type I et II.Visual signals from the primary visual cortex (V1), can take two main communication routes in order to reach higher visual areas: a corticocortical pathway and a cortico-thalamo-cortical (or transthalamic) pathway through high-order thalamic nuclei such as the pulvinar. While these pathways are receiving an increasing interest from the scientific community, their respective functions still remain largely unknown. An important step towards a better understanding of these pathways would be to investigate the nature of the signals they transmit. In this context, two main types of corticothalamic (CT) projections have been identified in the visual system: type I projections (modulators) and type II (drivers) characterized respectively by thin axons with small terminal and by thicker axons and larger terminals. A recent proposal has also hypothesized that these two types can also be distinguished by their expression of vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) in their respective synaptic terminals such that type II (driver) and type I (modulator) projections can selectively express VGLUT 2 and VGLUT 1, respectively (Balaram, 2013; Rovo et al, 2012). In cats, projections from V1 to the LP-pulvinar are mainly composed of type II terminals, while those from the Posteromedial lateral suprasylvian (PMLS) cortex present a combination of type I and II terminals. This observation suggests that, in higher-order (HO) thalamic nuclei, the proportion of type I terminals increases with the hierarchical level of the visual areas. To test this hypothesis, we charted the distribution of CT terminals originating from the Anterior EctoSylvian visual cortex (AEV) (article 1) and from area 21a (article 2). We also studied the expression of VGLUT 1 and 2 in the cat's visual system in order to test whether their expressions correlate with the projection sites of type I and II axon terminals (article 3). Our results from article 1 and 2 indicate that the vast majority of terminals sampled in the pulvinar from the AEV and area 21a are of type I while projections from V1 projections to the pulvinar were mostly composed of type II terminals. A comparison of the proportion of type I projections across areas V1, PMLS, 21a and the AEV revealed a positive correlation such that its proportion increased with the hierarchical rank of visual areas. Our results also indicate that VGLUT 1 and 2 have a complementary distribution pattern which matches prominent projection of type I and II respectively in ascending visual projections but does not in extra-geniculate pathways involving the pulvinar (Article 3). Taken together, results from this thesis have allowed a better understanding of the nature of cortico-thalamic projections originating from extra-striate visual areas (21a and AEV). These results are all the more important in that they establish a link between the nature of these projections and the hierarchical degree of their cortical area of origin, thus suggesting that there is a functional organization of CT pathways passing through the pulvinar. Finally, results of this thesis also enabled a better understanding of the expression of VGLUT 1 and 2 in the visual system and their possible respective biases for type I and type II projections