301 research outputs found
Phase Changes in the Evolution of the IPv4 and IPv6 AS-Level Internet Topologies
In this paper we investigate the evolution of the IPv4 and IPv6 Internet
topologies at the autonomous system (AS) level over a long period of time.We
provide abundant empirical evidence that there is a phase transition in the
growth trend of the two networks. For the IPv4 network, the phase change
occurred in 2001. Before then the network's size grew exponentially, and
thereafter it followed a linear growth. Changes are also observed around the
same time for the maximum node degree, the average node degree and the average
shortest path length. For the IPv6 network, the phase change occurred in late
2006. It is notable that the observed phase transitions in the two networks are
different, for example the size of IPv6 network initially grew linearly and
then shifted to an exponential growth. Our results show that following decades
of rapid expansion up to the beginning of this century, the IPv4 network has
now evolved into a mature, steady stage characterised by a relatively slow
growth with a stable network structure; whereas the IPv6 network, after a slow
startup process, has just taken off to a full speed growth. We also provide
insight into the possible impact of IPv6-over-IPv4 tunneling deployment scheme
on the evolution of the IPv6 network. The Internet topology generators so far
are based on an inexplicit assumption that the evolution of Internet follows
non-changing dynamic mechanisms. This assumption, however, is invalidated by
our results.Our work reveals insights into the Internet evolution and provides
inputs to future AS-Level Internet models.Comment: 12 pages, 21 figures; G. Zhang et al.,Phase changes in the evolution
of the IPv4 and IPv6 AS-Level Internet topologies, Comput. Commun. (2010
A survey on subjecting electronic product code and non-ID objects to IP identification
Over the last decade, both research on the Internet of Things (IoT) and
real-world IoT applications have grown exponentially. The IoT provides us with
smarter cities, intelligent homes, and generally more comfortable lives.
However, the introduction of these devices has led to several new challenges
that must be addressed. One of the critical challenges facing interacting with
IoT devices is to address billions of devices (things) around the world,
including computers, tablets, smartphones, wearable devices, sensors, and
embedded computers, and so on. This article provides a survey on subjecting
Electronic Product Code and non-ID objects to IP identification for IoT
devices, including their advantages and disadvantages thereof. Different
metrics are here proposed and used for evaluating these methods. In particular,
the main methods are evaluated in terms of their: (i) computational overhead,
(ii) scalability, (iii) adaptability, (iv) implementation cost, and (v) whether
applicable to already ID-based objects and presented in tabular format.
Finally, the article proves that this field of research will still be ongoing,
but any new technique must favorably offer the mentioned five evaluative
parameters.Comment: 112 references, 8 figures, 6 tables, Journal of Engineering Reports,
Wiley, 2020 (Open Access
IPv6 Diffusion Milestones: Assessing the Quantity and Quality of Adoption
There are currently two versions of Internet Protocol (IP) in use today, IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6). The original version, IPv4, was standardized in the early 1980s as part of the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency Internet program and became the official Internet protocol in 1983 (Kleinrock, 2010). IPv6 was standardized in 1995 as its successor to provide enhanced capabilities and address IPv4 technological limitations, most notable of which was the anticipated exhaustion of address space (Deering & Hinden, 1995). While the two protocols have some functional similarities, they are distinct and not backward compatible; IPv4-only devices cannot communicate directly with IPv6-only devices and vice-versa. Consequently, organizations wishing to take full advantage of the enhanced features of IPv6 must upgrade their entire network infrastructure and end devices to support IPv6, while at the same time maintaining IPv4 support for legacy systems that will not or cannot be upgraded. The costs and risks associated with upgrading an entire network to support a new protocol with no intrinsic return on investment has acted as a disincentive for IPv6 adoption. To be sure, the transition of the Internet to IPv6 has certainly taken a leisurely pace over the past twenty years. Given the slow pace of adoption, it is understandable that many doubted, and may still doubt that IPv6 will ever become the dominant Internet protocol and replace IPv4. However, in line with diffusion of innovations theory, it is the case with many innovations that potential adopters do not perceive any relative advantage, thus leading to a particularly slow adoption take-up rate. This is especially true with communications technologies that have high interdependence and require a critical mass of users before adoption becomes self-sustaining and rapidly accelerates (Rogers 2003). The goal of this paper is to provide empirical evidence showing that IPv6 adoption has reached critical mass and is now in a phase of accelerating adoption projected to continue. A methodology for monitoring the quality of IPv6 enablement and global IPv6 support is also provided so that the user experience over IPv6 can be assessed against the IPv4 baseline
A Brave New World: Studies on the Deployment and Security of the Emerging IPv6 Internet.
Recent IPv4 address exhaustion events are ushering in a new era of
rapid transition to the next generation Internet protocol---IPv6. Via
Internet-scale experiments and data analysis, this dissertation
characterizes the adoption and security of the emerging IPv6 network.
The work includes three studies, each the largest of its kind,
examining various facets of the new network protocol's deployment,
routing maturity, and security.
The first study provides an analysis of ten years of IPv6 deployment
data, including quantifying twelve metrics across ten global-scale
datasets, and affording a holistic understanding of the state and
recent progress of the IPv6 transition. Based on cross-dataset
analysis of relative global adoption rates and across features of the
protocol, we find evidence of a marked shift in the pace and nature
of adoption in recent years and observe that higher-level metrics of
adoption lag lower-level metrics.
Next, a network telescope study covering the IPv6 address space of the
majority of allocated networks provides insight into the early state
of IPv6 routing. Our analyses suggest that routing of average IPv6
prefixes is less stable than that of IPv4. This instability is
responsible for the majority of the captured misdirected IPv6 traffic.
Observed dark (unallocated destination) IPv6 traffic shows substantial
differences from the unwanted traffic seen in IPv4---in both character
and scale.
Finally, a third study examines the state of IPv6 network security
policy. We tested a sample of 25 thousand routers and 520 thousand
servers against sets of TCP and UDP ports commonly targeted by
attackers. We found systemic discrepancies between intended
security policy---as codified in IPv4---and deployed IPv6 policy.
Such lapses in ensuring that the IPv6 network is properly managed and
secured are leaving thousands of important devices more vulnerable to
attack than before IPv6 was enabled.
Taken together, findings from our three studies suggest that IPv6 has
reached a level and pace of adoption, and shows patterns of use, that
indicates serious production employment of the protocol on a broad
scale. However, weaker IPv6 routing and security are evident, and
these are leaving early dual-stack networks less robust than the IPv4
networks they augment.PhDComputer Science and EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/120689/1/jczyz_1.pd
- …