An Overview of Self-Adaptive Technologies Within Virtual Reality Training

This overview presents the current state-of-the-art of self-adaptive technologies within virtual reality (VR) training. Virtual reality training and assessment is increasingly used for five key areas: medical, industrial & commercial training, serious games, rehabilitation and remote training such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Adaptation can be applied to five core technologies of VR including haptic devices, stereo graphics, adaptive content, assessment and autonomous agents. Automation of VR training can contribute to automation of actual procedures including remote and robotic assisted surgery which reduces injury and improves accuracy of the procedure. Automated haptic interaction can enable tele-presence and virtual artefact tactile interaction from either remote or simulated environments. Automation, machine learning and data driven features play an important role in providing trainee-specific individual adaptive training content. Data from trainee assessment can form an input to autonomous systems for customised training and automated difficulty levels to match individual requirements. Self-adaptive technology has been developed previously within individual technologies of VR training. One of the conclusions of this research is that while it does not exist, an enhanced portable framework is needed and it would be beneficial to combine automation of core technologies, producing a reusable automation framework for VR training

Expert-in-the-Loop Multilateral Telerobotics for Haptics-Enabled Motor Function and Skills Development

Among medical robotics applications are Robotics-Assisted Mirror Rehabilitation Therapy (RAMRT) and Minimally-Invasive Surgical Training (RAMIST) that extensively rely on motor function development. Haptics-enabled expert-in-the-loop motor function development for such applications is made possible through multilateral telerobotic frameworks. While several studies have validated the benefits of haptic interaction with an expert in motor learning, contradictory results have also been reported. This emphasizes the need for further in-depth studies on the nature of human motor learning through haptic guidance and interaction. The objective of this study was to design and evaluate expert-in-the-loop multilateral telerobotic frameworks with stable and human-safe control loops that enable adaptive “hand-over-hand” haptic guidance for RAMRT and RAMIST. The first prerequisite for such frameworks is active involvement of the patient or trainee, which requires the closed-loop system to remain stable in the presence of an adaptable time-varying dominance factor. To this end, a wave-variable controller is proposed in this study for conventional trilateral teleoperation systems such that system stability is guaranteed in the presence of a time-varying dominance factor and communication delay. Similar to other wave-variable approaches, the controller is initially developed for the Velocity-force Domain (VD) based on the well-known passivity assumption on the human arm in VD. The controller can be applied straightforwardly to the Position-force Domain (PD), eliminating position-error accumulation and position drift, provided that passivity of the human arm in PD is addressed. However, the latter has been ignored in the literature. Therefore, in this study, passivity of the human arm in PD is investigated using mathematical analysis, experimentation as well as user studies involving 12 participants and 48 trials. The results, in conjunction with the proposed wave-variables, can be used to guarantee closed-loop PD stability of the supervised trilateral teleoperation system in its classical format. The classic dual-user teleoperation architecture does not, however, fully satisfy the requirements for properly imparting motor function (skills) in RAMRT (RAMIST). Consequently, the next part of this study focuses on designing novel supervised trilateral frameworks for providing motor learning in RAMRT and RAMIST, each customized according to the requirements of the application. The framework proposed for RAMRT includes the following features: a) therapist-in-the-loop mirror therapy; b) haptic feedback to the therapist from the patient side; c) assist-as-needed therapy realized through an adaptive Guidance Virtual Fixture (GVF); and d) real-time task-independent and patient-specific motor-function assessment. Closed-loop stability of the proposed framework is investigated using a combination of the Circle Criterion and the Small-Gain Theorem. The stability analysis addresses the instabilities caused by: a) communication delays between the therapist and the patient, facilitating haptics-enabled tele- or in-home rehabilitation; and b) the integration of the time-varying nonlinear GVF element into the delayed system. The platform is experimentally evaluated on a trilateral rehabilitation setup consisting of two Quanser rehabilitation robots and one Quanser HD2 robot. The framework proposed for RAMIST includes the following features: a) haptics-enabled expert-in-the-loop surgical training; b) adaptive expertise-oriented training, realized through a Fuzzy Interface System, which actively engages the trainees while providing them with appropriate skills-oriented levels of training; and c) task-independent skills assessment. Closed-loop stability of the architecture is analyzed using the Circle Criterion in the presence and absence of haptic feedback of tool-tissue interactions. In addition to the time-varying elements of the system, the stability analysis approach also addresses communication delays, facilitating tele-surgical training. The platform is implemented on a dual-console surgical setup consisting of the classic da Vinci surgical system (Intuitive Surgical, Inc., Sunnyvale, CA), integrated with the da Vinci Research Kit (dVRK) motor controllers, and the dV-Trainer master console (Mimic Technology Inc., Seattle, WA). In order to save on the expert\u27s (therapist\u27s) time, dual-console architectures can also be expanded to accommodate simultaneous training (rehabilitation) for multiple trainees (patients). As the first step in doing this, the last part of this thesis focuses on the development of a multi-master/single-slave telerobotic framework, along with controller design and closed-loop stability analysis in the presence of communication delays. Various parts of this study are supported with a number of experimental implementations and evaluations. The outcomes of this research include multilateral telerobotic testbeds for further studies on the nature of human motor learning and retention through haptic guidance and interaction. They also enable investigation of the impact of communication time delays on supervised haptics-enabled motor function improvement through tele-rehabilitation and mentoring

Collaborative Gaze Channelling for Improved Cooperation During Robotic Assisted Surgery

The use of multiple robots for performing complex tasks is becoming a common practice for many robot applications. When different operators are involved, effective cooperation with anticipated manoeuvres is important for seamless, synergistic control of all the end-effectors. In this paper, the concept of Collaborative Gaze Channelling (CGC) is presented for improved control of surgical robots for a shared task. Through eye tracking, the fixations of each operator are monitored and presented in a shared surgical workspace. CGC permits remote or physically separated collaborators to share their intention by visualising the eye gaze of their counterparts, and thus recovers, to a certain extent, the information of mutual intent that we rely upon in a vis-à-vis working setting. In this study, the efficiency of surgical manipulation with and without CGC for controlling a pair of bimanual surgical robots is evaluated by analysing the level of coordination of two independent operators. Fitts' law is used to compare the quality of movement with or without CGC. A total of 40 subjects have been recruited for this study and the results show that the proposed CGC framework exhibits significant improvement (p<0.05) on all the motion indices used for quality assessment. This study demonstrates that visual guidance is an implicit yet effective way of communication during collaborative tasks for robotic surgery. Detailed experimental validation results demonstrate the potential clinical value of the proposed CGC framework. © 2012 Biomedical Engineering Society.link_to_subscribed_fulltex

An Energy-Based Approach for n-dof Passive Dual-user Haptic Training Systems

International audienceThis paper introduces a dual-user training system whose design is based on an energetic approach. This kind of system is useful for supervised hands-on training where a trainer interacts with a trainee through two haptic devices, in order to practice on a manual task performed on a virtual or teleoperated robot (for example for an MIS task in a surgical context). This paper details the proof of stability of an Energy Shared Control (ESC) architecture we previously introduced for one degree of freedom (d.o.f.) devices. An extension to multiple degrees of freedom is proposed, along with an enhanced version of the Adaptive Authority Adjustment (AAA) function. Experiments are carried out with 3 d.o.f. haptic devices in free motion as well as in contact contexts in order to show the relevance of this architecture

Recent Advancements in Augmented Reality for Robotic Applications: A Survey

Robots are expanding from industrial applications to daily life, in areas such as medical robotics, rehabilitative robotics, social robotics, and mobile/aerial robotics systems. In recent years, augmented reality (AR) has been integrated into many robotic applications, including medical, industrial, human–robot interactions, and collaboration scenarios. In this work, AR for both medical and industrial robot applications is reviewed and summarized. For medical robot applications, we investigated the integration of AR in (1) preoperative and surgical task planning; (2) image-guided robotic surgery; (3) surgical training and simulation; and (4) telesurgery. AR for industrial scenarios is reviewed in (1) human–robot interactions and collaborations; (2) path planning and task allocation; (3) training and simulation; and (4) teleoperation control/assistance. In addition, the limitations and challenges are discussed. Overall, this article serves as a valuable resource for working in the field of AR and robotic research, offering insights into the recent state of the art and prospects for improvement

Haptic data reduction through dynamic perceptual analysis and event-based communication

This research presents an adjustable and flexible framework for haptic data compression and communication that can be used in a robotic teleoperation session. The framework contains a customized event-driven transmission control protocol, several dynamically adaptive perceptual and prediction methods for haptic sample reduction, and last but not the least, an architecture for the data flow

A Scoping Review on Virtual Reality-Based Industrial Training

The fourth industrial revolution has forced most companies to technologically evolve, applying new digital tools, so that their workers can have the necessary skills to face changing work environments. This article presents a scoping review of the literature on virtual reality-based training systems. The methodology consisted of four steps, which pose research questions, document search, paper selection, and data extraction. From a total of 350 peer-reviewed database articles, such as SpringerLink, IEEEXplore, MDPI, Scopus, and ACM, 44 were eventually chosen, mostly using the virtual reality haptic glasses and controls from Oculus Rift and HTC VIVE. It was concluded that, among the advantages of using this digital tool in the industry, is the commitment, speed, measurability, preservation of the integrity of the workers, customization, and cost reduction. Even though several research gaps were found, virtual reality is presented as a present and future alternative for the efficient training of human resources in the industrial field.This work was supported by Instituto Superior Tecnológico Victoria Vásconez Cuvi. The authors appreciate the opportunity to analyze topics related to this paper. The authors must also recognize the supported bringing by Universidad Tecnica de Ambato (UTA) and their Research and Development Department (DIDE) under project CONIN-P-256-2019, and SENESCYT by grants “Convocatoria Abierta 2011” and “Convocatoria Abierta 2013”

Space Science Opportunities Augmented by Exploration Telepresence

Since the end of the Apollo missions to the lunar surface in December 1972, humanity has exclusively conducted scientific studies on distant planetary surfaces using teleprogrammed robots. Operations and science return for all of these missions are constrained by two issues related to the great distances between terrestrial scientists and their exploration targets: high communication latencies and limited data bandwidth. Despite the proven successes of in-situ science being conducted using teleprogrammed robotic assets such as Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity rovers on the surface of Mars, future planetary field research may substantially overcome latency and bandwidth constraints by employing a variety of alternative strategies that could involve: 1) placing scientists/astronauts directly on planetary surfaces, as was done in the Apollo era; 2) developing fully autonomous robotic systems capable of conducting in-situ field science research; or 3) teleoperation of robotic assets by humans sufficiently proximal to the exploration targets to drastically reduce latencies and significantly increase bandwidth, thereby achieving effective human telepresence. This third strategy has been the focus of experts in telerobotics, telepresence, planetary science, and human spaceflight during two workshops held from October 3–7, 2016, and July 7–13, 2017, at the Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS). Based on findings from these workshops, this document describes the conceptual and practical foundations of low-latency telepresence (LLT), opportunities for using derivative approaches for scientific exploration of planetary surfaces, and circumstances under which employing telepresence would be especially productive for planetary science. An important finding of these workshops is the conclusion that there has been limited study of the advantages of planetary science via LLT. A major recommendation from these workshops is that space agencies such as NASA should substantially increase science return with greater investments in this promising strategy for human conduct at distant exploration sites

Space Science Opportunities Augmented by Exploration Telepresence

Since the end of the Apollo missions to the lunar surface in December 1972, humanity has exclusively conducted scientific studies on distant planetary surfaces using teleprogrammed robots. Operations and science return for all of these missions are constrained by two issues related to the great distances between terrestrial scientists and their exploration targets: high communication latencies and limited data bandwidth. Despite the proven successes of in-situ science being conducted using teleprogrammed robotic assets such as Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity rovers on the surface of Mars, future planetary field research may substantially overcome latency and bandwidth constraints by employing a variety of alternative strategies that could involve: 1) placing scientists/astronauts directly on planetary surfaces, as was done in the Apollo era; 2) developing fully autonomous robotic systems capable of conducting in-situ field science research; or 3) teleoperation of robotic assets by humans sufficiently proximal to the exploration targets to drastically reduce latencies and significantly increase bandwidth, thereby achieving effective human telepresence. This third strategy has been the focus of experts in telerobotics, telepresence, planetary science, and human spaceflight during two workshops held from October 3–7, 2016, and July 7–13, 2017, at the Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS). Based on findings from these workshops, this document describes the conceptual and practical foundations of low-latency telepresence (LLT), opportunities for using derivative approaches for scientific exploration of planetary surfaces, and circumstances under which employing telepresence would be especially productive for planetary science. An important finding of these workshops is the conclusion that there has been limited study of the advantages of planetary science via LLT. A major recommendation from these workshops is that space agencies such as NASA should substantially increase science return with greater investments in this promising strategy for human conduct at distant exploration sites