Pengembangan Modul Statistika Deskriptif Berbasis Penalaran Statistik

Penelitian bertujuan mengembangkan modul statistika deskriptif berbasis penalaran statistik yang memenuhi kriteria valid, praktis, dan efektif. Penelitian pengembangan menggunakan tahapan ASSURE yang telah dimodifikasi sesuai dengan kebutuhan penelitian. Teknik pengumpulan data menggunakan angket validasi untuk mengukur kevalidan modul, angket respon mahasiswa calon guru untuk mengukur kepraktisan, dan tes untuk mengukur keefektifan. Uji kevalidan dan kepraktisan menggunakan rata-rata skor, dan uji keefektifan menggunakan uji binomial tes. Hasil pengembangan modul menunjukkan bahwa: modul yang dikembangkan telah memenuhi kriteria kevalidan dengan skor rata-rata 4,60, modul telah memenuhi kriteria kepraktisan dengan skor rata-rata angket respon sebesar 4,32, dan modul telah memenuhi kriteria keefektifan yang ditunjukan dengan 74% mahasiswa calon guru telah melampaui nilai 60. Dengan demikian ketiga kriteria (valid, praktis, dan efektif) dalam pengembangan modul telah tercapai. Namun demikian perlu optimalisasi penggunaan modul dalam pembelajaran dan pembiasaan pemberian permasalahan statistika penelitian maupun permasalahan kehidupan sehari-hari.&nbsp

Variability in University Students’ Use of Technology: An 'Approaches to Learning' Perspective

This study reports the results of a cross-case study analysis of how students’ approaches to learning are demonstrated in blended learning environments. It was initially propositioned that approaches to learning as key determinants of the quality of student learning outcomes are demonstrated specifically in how students utilise technology in blended learning contexts. Three case studies were conducted in a teaching-focused university and the findings of each case were examined across the case studies to determine their relatability. Prominent themes from the cases showed that a deep approach can be consistent with an intentionally selective use of facilities within the online environment. Similarly, a strategic approach can also be consistent with overall higher levels of online activity. Conclusions highlight that approaches to learning within a blended learning context are dependent on the level and the quality of the face-to-face as well as online instruction

Lessons from University Instructors and Students Toward the Post-COVID-19 Laboratory Education

학위논문(박사) -- 서울대학교대학원 : 사범대학 과학교육과(화학전공), 2023. 2. 홍훈기.2020년에 발생한 코로나-19 사태와 이로 인한 사회적 거리두기 방역 정책은 대학 실험 수업들이 관습적인 대면 방식에서 익숙하지 않은 비대면 방식으로 갑작스럽게 전환되는 상황을 야기하였다. 코로나-19로 인한 세계적인 교육 결손이 예상되는 상황에서, 과학교육학자들은 비대면 원격 실험 수업이 가져온 실험 교육의 변화에 주목하며 그 전개와 결과에 대한 경험적인 연구를 촉구하였다. 이에 본 연구자는 다음과 같은 두 가지 목표를 지니고 연구를 수행하였다. 첫째, 원격 실험 수업이라는 초유의 상황에 직면하여 제기된 실험 교육의 본질(essence)에 관한 근본적인 질문들에 답하고자 한다. 그러한 질문들은 다음과 같이 요약될 수 있을 것이다. (문 1) 대학은 물론 K-12 과학교육에 이르기까지 실험 수업 경험의 본질은 무엇인가? 만족스러운 학습 결과가 어느 정도 보장된다면 원격 마인즈온 수업이 핸즈온 경험을 대체할 수 있는가? (문 2) 교수자와 학생의 시공간적 공동-존재(co-presence)는 필수적인가? (문 3) 우리는 어떻게 학생들은 자연 현상에 대한 탐구로 초대하고, 그것을 실험 보고서에서 과학적 글쓰기로서 표현하도록 할 수 있는가? (문 4) 위에 대한 답은 세계의 여러 문화 및 그에 따른 교수자와 학생 간의 상호작용의 특성에 따라 달라지는가? (문 5) 우리는 어떻게 일반적인 상황뿐 아니라 긴급한 상황에서도 실행할 수 있는 효과적이고 적응적인 실험 수업을 설계할 수 있는가? 이에 대한 잠정적인 답을 연구의 이론적 틀과 함께 살펴보고, 보다 직접적인 답을 연구의 결과에 비춘 논의에서 제시하고자 하였다. 둘째, 본 논문은 2020년에 코로나-19로 인하여 촉발된 원격 실험 수업에 관하여 대학에서의 이공계열 교육에 어떠한 현상이 발생하였는지를 조사하고 향후의 대학 원격 실험 수업을 위한 실제적인 함의를 제공하는 일을 목표로 하였다. 보다 구체적으로, 본 논문은 대학 교수자들이 2020년 봄학기에 팬데믹을 직면하여 어떻게 원격 실험 수업을 실행(implement)하였는지를 합리적으로 설명하고(연구 1), 학생들의 반응을 통해 그 원격 실험 수업의 결과를 조사하며(연구 3), 미래의 대학 원격 실험 수업 설계를 위한 실제적인 지침(guideline)을 제공하고자 하였다. 본 연구의 현장인 한국대학교(가명)의 상황이 이러한 전반적인 연구의 시작과 수행을 가능하게 하였다. 이론적 틀로서, 대학 원격 실험 수업을 실험 수업과 이러닝(e-learning)의 각 요소가 교차하는 지점으로 이해하는 관점을 제안하였다. 우선, 실험 수업 또는 이러닝 수업을 실행하는 이유는 실험 수업의 목적 또는 이러닝의 가능성 및 요구에 놓여 있다. 교수 프로그램의 일종으로서, 실험 수업과 이러닝은 어떻게 내용을 전달하고, 학습자 간 상호작용을 촉진하고, 평가와 피드백을 제공하는지를 고려해야만 한다. 그리고 두 프로그램들에서 이러한 세 요소들은 서로 자연스럽게 대응한다. 2020년의 다양한 대학 원격 실험 수업들은 코로나-19 상황에서 이러한 두 교육적 전통이 만나서, 교호하며, 혼합된(blended) 지점이었다. 또한 2020년의 다양한 대학 원격 실험 수업들의 특성은 사회문화적인 요소를 포함하는 각각의 교수학습 맥락에서 형성되었다. 2020년의 대학 원격 실험 수업 교수자 및 학생들로부터 얻은 교훈은(연구 1 및 2) 본 연구자가 실험 교육을 위하여 확장된 블렌디드(blended) 러닝 이해에 도달하게 하였으며(2.3.4 참조) 대학 원격 실험 수업을 위한 교수 설계(instructional design) 모형의 필요성 역시 제기하였다. 과학교육에서의 실험 수업에 관하여, 실험 수업의 목적과, 핸즈온(hands-on) 및 마인즈온(minds-on) 논쟁과, 실험 보고서 쓰기 및 피드백 방법을 고찰하였다. 이러닝 및 효과적인 교수 전략에 관하여, 이러닝의 전망 및 요구와, 매체(media) 제시와, 온라인 상호작용의 양상과, 이러닝에서의 평가 및 피드백을 숙고하였다. 원격 실험 수업의 (재)창발에 관하여는 코로나-19 이전과 이후의 연구들을 돌아보고, 해당 용어의 의미를 도출하였다. 특별히, 원격 실험 수업을 확장된 블렌디드 러닝으로 이해하는 관점을 제안하였는데, 이는 첫째로 핸즈온 및 마인즈온 실험 경험을 혼합하고 둘째로 실험 경험들과 학습 공간들을 혼합하는 것이었다. 더하여, 과학교육에서의 교수자 행위주체성(agency)을 활용하여 대학의 이공계열 교수자들이 원격 실험 수업을 실행할 때의 적응적인 행동을 해석하였다. 우리나라 과학 교수자들의 행위주체성에 대한 사회문화적 시각은 연구자의 해석의 지평을 거시적(macro-), 중시적(meso-), 그리고 미시적(micro-) 수준의 구조(structure)들로 정교화하였다. 또한, 교육공학 분야에서의 설계 및 개발 연구 관점에 따라 유연하고(flexible) 반복적인(iterative) 교수 설계 모형의 유용성을 제안하였으며, 이는 외적 타당화를 위한 수업 모듈 도출 과정에서의 래피드 프로토타이핑(rapid prototyping)을 포함하는 것이었다. 연구 1에서, 연구자는 한국대학교에서 코로나-19 이전에 서로 비슷하였던 일반 물리학, 화학, 생물학, 지구과학 실험뿐만 아니라 2개의 전공 교과 실험 수업을 비교하였다. 연구자는 대학 원격 실험 수업 현상의 창발을 사회문화적 관점에서 해석하였는데, 이 때 코로나-19 팬데믹과 교육 당국에 의하여 부과된 구조 및 대학 교수자들의 행위주체성에 주목하였다. 거시적 수준의 한국 맥락, 중시적 수준의 한국대학교 맥락, 그리고 미시적 수준의 개별 대학 원격 실험 수업 맥락은 서로 뿐만 아니라 대학 교수자의 행위주체성과도 밀접하게 상호연관되어 있었다. 2020년 봄학기에, 교수자의 행위주체성은 이러한 다층적(multi-level) 구조들에 의하여 모양지어졌다(shaped). 그러나, 개별 교과(discipline)에 따라 실행된 대학 원격 실험 수업은 교수자가 투입한 노력에 따라 상당히 다양하게 되었다. 대학 교수자들의 고려사항은 동영상 자료, 실험 데이터의 특성, 자신들과 학생들 간의 제한된 상호작용, 평가의 어려움, 그리고 학생들이 핸즈온 경험이 없이 원격 실험 수업에서 무엇을 얻을(gain) 수 있는가 하는 점이었다. 2020년 가을학기부터 대학 교수자들은 상황에 적응하여 자신들의 원격 실험 수업을 개선하였으며, 더 많은 개선점들을 제안하였다. 연구 1의 결과는 대학 교수자의 행위주체성이 임박한 긴급 상황에서 다양한 원격 실험 수업 실행이 창발하는 결과를 낳았음을 보여준다. 연구 2는 연구 1과 발맞추어 한국대학교에서 수행되었다. 연구자는 대학생들이 서로 다른 교과의 다양한 원격 실험 수업 경험을 어떻게 인식하였는지를 조사하였다. 연구 2는 혼합 연구로서, 338명의 학생들로부터 온라인 설문 응답을 얻었으며 18명의 학생들과 인터뷰를 실시하였다. 분산분석(ANOVA)과 Bonferroni 사후 검정을 통해 원격 실험 수업 경험에 대한 학생들의 인식이 교과(물리, 화학, 생물, 지구과학, 다른 전공 과목)에 따라 통계적으로 유의미하게 다르다는 점을 발견하였다(p < .05). 더하여, 학생 인터뷰는 이러한 차이들이 개별 교과목에서 창발한 교수 전략에 의하여 발생하였음을 드러내었다. 향후의 효과적인 원격 실험 수업을 위한 전략으로서, 수업의 목적을 명확히 설정하기, 실험 동영상을 세심하게 설계하기, 동시적(synchronous) 온라인 협력 세션 제공하기, 실험 보고서 작성에 대한 피드백을 제공하고 보충적 평가를 실시하기 등을 제안하였다. 연구 3에서 연구자는 대학 원격 실험 수업을 위한 블렌디드 실험 및 이러닝 교수 설계(Blended Laboratory and E-learning iNstructional Design, BLEND) 모형을 개발하고 타당화하였다. 팬데믹에 의하여 요동하는 교수 환경에 대응하기 위해, 연구자는 교수 설계 모형을 신속하게 구축하여 실제적 학습 맥락에 적용하고, 참여자의 피드백을 통한 반복적(iterative) 모형 수정을 시도하였다. 연구 맥락은 예비 화학 교사들을 위한 분석화학실험 강좌였다. 초기 BLEND 모형은 문헌 리뷰 및 2020년의 연구 1과 연구 2의 교훈에 기반하여 도출되었다. 내적(internal) 타당화를 위해 6명의 이해당사자(stakeholder)가 사용성 평가(usability test)에 참여하였으며, 다양한 과학 교과 배경의 10명의 내용 전문가와 3명의 교육공학 전문가가 전문가 리뷰를 제공하였다. 외적(external) 타당화를 위해 해당 시기의 교수 설계 모형을 기반으로 대학 원격 실험 수업 모듈이 개발 및 실행되었고, 해당 강좌를 수강하는 7명의 대학생들이 온라인 설문 및 후속 인터뷰에 참여하였다. 2회기의 타당화 과정을 거쳐, BLEND 모형은 내적으로 효율적이며(efficient) 외적으로 효과적(effective)인 것으로 타당화되었다. 이 때 교수자 및 학생 간의 높은 상호작용이 특별히 주목되었다. 대학 원격 실험 수업을 위한 최종 BLEND 모형은 지속적인 형성 평가와 피드백을 중시하며, 주별 그리고 강좌별 수준에서의 원격 실험 수업 교수 체제를 구조화하고 시각화하였다. 연구 3은 과학교육에서 설계 및 개발 연구 방법을 적용한 드문 사례이다. 본 연구에서 모두 해결되지 않고 여전히 후속 연구를 요구하는 쟁점들은 다음과 같다: (1) 원격 실험 형식이 요구하는 바와 각각의 과학 과목(물리, 화학, 생물, 지구과학 등)의 특성 사이의 상호작용이 더 자세히 고찰되어야 한다. (2) 실험 동영상을 어떻게 설계하고, 촬영하며, 편집해야 하는지의 문제가 여전히 중요하다. (3) 개방형(open-ended) 탐구 실험 수업을 위한 교수 설계 모형이 향후의 중요한 연구 주제이다. 이 경우, 개방형 탐구 수업 프로그램을 어떻게 평가할 것인지 역시 반드시 먼저 해결되어야 할 연구 주제가 될 것이다. 본 연구의 강점은 2020년 및 2021년의 한국대학교라는 연구 현장의 독특성에 기인한다. 본 연구는 코로나-19 초기 상황에서 창발한 원격 실험 수업에 관하여 상당히 많은 데이터를 수집한 연구 사례로 보인다. 그러므로, 연구 1에서 연구 3에 이르는 작업은 코로나-19의 초기 단계에서 나타난 원격 실험 수업 현상을 포괄적으로 보고하려는 시도라고 할 수 있다. 하지만 역설적으로. 본 연구의 강점을 만들었던 코로나-19 상황은 시간이 지나고 상황이 변화함에 따라 양날의 검으로 작용할 수 있다. 결과적으로, 포스트-코로나-19 시대에 원격 수업, 특히 원격 실험 수업의 지위가 어떠할지를 예상하기란 쉽지 않다. 만약 우리가 낙관적인 시선을 취한다면, 대학 원격 실험 수업에 대한 우리의 경험은 실험 교육에 대한 우리의 상상을 확장시켜, 시간과 공간을 넘나들며 다양한 학습 양상을 통합하는 블렌디드형식을 향해 전진하게 할 것이다. 실제로, 실험 교육을 위해 확장된 블렌디드 러닝 이해는 핸즈온 대 마인즈온, 동시적 대 비동시적, 현장 대 원격 등의 오랜 이분법을 넘어 더 나은 실험 교육으로 나아가는 길을 비춘 면이 있다. 이와는 반대로, 만약 우리가 비관적인 시선을 취한다면, 원격 실험 수업에 대한 우리의 심각한 고찰 역시 언젠가 사라질 수 있으며, 이는 교육사에서 많은 교수 방법들이 그러했던 것과 마찬가지이다. 그러므로, 상기하였듯 코로나-19로 인하여 우리가 경험한 원격 실험 수업을 통해 재발견된 실험 수업의 본질에 관한 근본적인 질문들(문 1-5)에 답하는 일이 요청된다. 여기서 이러한 질문들에 답하는 가장 편리한 방법은 각 실험 수업에서 정하는 학습 목표의 특수성에 의존하는 것이겠지만, 이러한 단순한 해결책은 포스트-코로나-19 실험 교육을 위한 더 심화된 고찰로 나아가는 길을 열어줄 수 없다. 그러므로, 위에서 제기된 5가지의 질문들에 대해 본 연구의 참여자들의 목소리로부터 보다 구체적인 답을 해보는 일이 의미 있을 것이다: (답 1) 학생들이 실험 기능(skill)을 함양할 뿐만 아니라 예상하지 못했던 현상과 함께 암묵적 지식(tacit knowledge) 및 과학의 본성(nature of science)을 직면할 기회를 제공하기 위하여, 학생들에게 최소불가결의 핸즈온 경험을 제공해야 한다. 블렌디드 러닝 형식은 핸즈온 경험과 마인즈온 경험을 모두 갖게 하는 대안이 될 수 있다. (답 2) 교수자와 학생들은 시간적인 측면에서는 반드시 동시적 상호작용을 해야만 한다. 다만, 그 들이 공간적으로 함께 있는 일이 필수적인지는 명확하지 않다. (답 3) 만약 가능하다면, 학기 단위의 개방형 실험 수업을 진행하는 것이 학생들을 깊이 있는 탐구적 사고로 초대하는 가장 좋은 기회가 될 것이다. 하지만, 현실적으로 요리책(cookbook) 형식의 실험 수업들에서는 이론적 예측과 실제 실험 데이터 사이의 간극만이 탐구가 일어나게 되는 유일한 지점일 수 있다. 그러므로, 예비실험(pre-lab) 활동, 데이터 특성, 동료 토론(discussion)이 주의 깊게 설계되어야 한다. (답 4) 만약 실험 수업 현장을 둘러싼 문화가 인지적 경로로서의 손(hand) 또는 마음(mind)을 강조하거나, 교수자와 학생 간의 상호작용을 수직적으로 또는 수평적으로 만든다면, 그렇다고 할 수 있다. (답 5) 교수 체제에 대한 형성 평가라는 개념이 실험 수업을 더 적응적이고(adaptive) 유연하게 만드는 방법일 수 있는데, 이것은 연구 3에서 개발된 BLEND 모형에서 잘 드러난다. 2020년 한국대학교의 교수자와 학습자들은 대학 원격 실험 수업을 실행하고 수강하기 위해 노력한 진정한 행위자들(agents)이었다. 그리고 그들이 남긴 교훈이야말로 포스트-코로나-19 실험 수업을 향하는 BLEND 모형의 개발 및 실험 수업의 본질에 관한 고찰을 가능하게 하였다.The COVID-19 situation in 2020 and the so-called social distancing preventive policy necessitated the sudden shift of university laboratory courses from a conventional face-to-face format into an unfamiliar non-face-to-face one. Amidst the unexpected educational losses worldwide, science education scholars focused on the changes in laboratory education brought by remote laboratory course format and urged empirical studies on them. The researcher had two research purposes throughout this study. First, it was to answer fundamental questions on the essence of laboratory education that were raised facing the unprecedented global implementation of remote laboratory courses. (Q1) What is the essence of the laboratory experience from the university to K-12 science education? If satisfactory learning outcomes are secured to some extent, can (remote) minds-on experience replace hands-on one? (Q2) Is spatio-temporal co-presence of instructors and students necessary? (Q3) How can we invite students to an inquiry about natural phenomena, which would be represented in their scientific writing in their lab report? (Q4) Do the answers differ according to the characteristics of interaction among instructors and students and in different cultures worldwide? (Q5) How can we design a laboratory course that is both effective and adaptive that can be implemented in both normal and emergency situations? The tentative answers were explored while reviewing theoretical backgrounds and more direct answers were given while discussing the specific results of this study. Second, it was to investigate what happened in the university STEM education sites concerning remote labs necessitated by the COVID-19 in 2020 and provide implications for future University Remote Laboratories (URLs). More specifically, it was to rationalize how university instructors implemented their remote labs in the spring semester of 2020 facing the imminent pandemic (Study 1), investigate the consequence of those remote labs via university students response (Study 2), and prescribe practical guidelines for future remote lab design (Study 3). The research field of Hankuk University (pseudonym) initiated and enabled this overall research. A framework to understand URL as the locus where the components of laboratory sessions and e-learning intersect was suggested. The reasons for implementing laboratory or e-learning courses lie in the purpose of laboratory or the promises and requirements of e-learning. As instructional programs, laboratory and e-learning should consider how the content is delivered, interactions between learners promoted, and assessment and feedback are provided. And those three factors in both programs naturally correspond to each other. The COVID-19 situation made the two strands of educational tradition meet, interplay, and blended in the various URL courses that emerged in 2020. The characteristics of the URL courses in 2020 were shaped according to each teaching and learning context, which includes sociocultural factors. And the lessons from URL instructors and students in 2020 (Study 1 and 2) led the researcher to an extended understanding of blended learning for laboratory education (see 2.3.4) and raised the need for an instructional design (ID) model for URLs (see 2.5 and Study 3). For laboratory in science education, the purpose of laboratory, hands-on versus minds-on debate, interaction in laboratory, and lab report writing and feedback were contemplated. For e-learning and effective teaching strategies, the promises and requirements of e-learning, media presentation, aspects of online interaction, and assessment and feedback in e-learning were deliberated. For (re-)emergence of remote laboratory, studies before and after the COVID-19 were reviewed, and its meaning was revisited. Particularly, understanding remote laboratory as extended blended learning was suggested, which first blends the hands-on and minds-on laboratory experiences and second laboratory experiences and learning spaces. Further, the instructor agency framework in science education was utilized to interpret the adaptive behavior of university STEM instructors while implementing their remote lab courses. The sociocultural perspective on Korean science instructors agency elaborated the researchers horizon of interpretation in macro-, meso- and micro- level structures. Also, the notion of design and development research in educational technology assured the utility of an ID model that is adaptive and flexible, which includes rapid prototyping (RP) when eliciting the course module for external validation. In Study 1, the researcher compared four general remote labs, each for physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science, that were previously similar, and two major course labs at Hankuk University. The emergence of URL phenomena was interpreted from a sociocultural perspective, focusing on the structure posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the educational authorities and the agency of university instructors. The macro-level context of Korea, the meso-level context of Hankuk University, and the micro-level context of each URL were closely interconnected with each other and the university instructors agency. In the spring semester of 2020, instructors agency was strongly shaped by the multi-level structures. However, the implemented URL in each discipline became quite various due to the endeavor instructors put in. The university instructors concerns were about video materials, data characteristics, limited interactions between them and students, difficulties in evaluation, and what students could gain from the URLs without hands-on experience. Since the fall semester of 2020, instructors have adapted to the situation, revised their URLs, and suggested further improvements. Study 1 reveals that university instructors agency led to the emergence of various remote laboratory course implementations in the context of an imminent emergency. In Study 2, in step with Study 1, the researcher investigated how Hankuk University students perceived various remote laboratory course experiences in different content disciplines. Conducted as a mixed-methods study, online survey responses were collected from 338 students, and in-depth interviews were conducted with 18 students. ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc tests of survey responses found that students perceptions of their URL experiences were significantly different (p < .05) dependent on content discipline (physics, chemistry, biology, earth science, and other majors). In addition, student interviews revealed that these differences in perceptions resulted from the different emergent teaching strategies used in each course. Suggestions were made for clearly setting learning objectives, carefully designing videos of experiments, offering collaborative synchronous online sessions, providing guidance and feedback for lab report writing, and introducing supportive assessments as strategies for future implementation of remote labs. In Study 3, the BLEND (Blended Laboratory and E-learning iNstructional Design) ID model for URL was developed and validated. To respond to the fluctuating instructional environment of the pandemic, an ID model was promptly constructed and applied in the authentic learning context, iteratively revising the model with participant feedback. The research context was an Analytical Chemistry Experiment (ACE) course for pre-service chemistry teachers. The initial BLEND model was based on a literature review and lessons from Study 1 and 2 in 2020. For internal validation, six stakeholders participated in the usability test, and 10 subject-matter experts from various science disciplines and three educational technology experts provided expert reviews. For external validation, the URL course module was developed and implemented from the ID model, and seven university students who took the course responded to online surveys and participated in follow-up interviews. After two rounds of validation, the BLEND model was confirmed to be internally efficient and externally effective. The interactions with the instructor and peers, in particular, were highly appreciated. The finalized BLEND model for URL emphasizes constant formative evaluation and feedback and structures and visualizes the URL instructional system at both the weekly and overall course levels. Study 3 is a rare case of applying a design and development research method to science education. Some issues were not resolved in this study and need follow-up research: (1) The interplay between the requirements of remote lab format and the nature of each science discipline (i.e., physics, chemistry, biology, and earth science) should be scrutinized. (2) How the experiment video should be designed, shot, and edited remains crucial. (3) An ID model for open-ended inquiry laboratory is a plausible future research topic. Then, how to evaluate the open-ended inquiry module arises as an essential prerequisite, which is also an important research agenda. The strength of this study lies in its unique research field - Hankuk University in 2020 and 2021. This study seems to have collected extensive data for various remote lab courses that emerged in the initial situation of the COVID-19. Therefore, Study 1 to Study 3 can be said the attempts that report the URL phenomena during the early stage of the COVID-19 comprehensively. However, ironically, the COVID-19 situation that shaped the strength of this study can also be a double-edged sword as time passes and the situation changes. Consequently, the status of remote teachings, especially of remote labs in the post-COVID-19 era, is hard to predict. If we take an optimistic view, our experience of URLs will broaden our imagination to evolve our laboratory education towards a blended format incorporating various learning modes across time and space. Indeed, the extended understanding of the blended learning for laboratory courses could shed some light on the path that overcoming the old dichotomies such as hands-on versus minds-on, synchronous vs. asynchronous, physical versus virtual, and place-based versus remote, to proceed toward better laboratory education. In contrast, if we take a pessimistic view, we can expect that even our serious contemplation on remote labs may disappear someday, as many teaching methods did in the history of education. Therefore, it is recommended to recall fundamental questions on the essence of laboratory sessions that are rediscovered while we experience remote labs due to the COVID-19 (Q1-Q5). The easiest way to answer those questions would be by relying on the peculiarity of the learning objectives in each laboratory course - however, it does not open the way to more profound contemplations toward the post-COVID-19 laboratory education. Instead, more certain answers for the abovementioned questions (Q1-Q5) could be meaningfully derived from participants' voices throughout this study: (A1) The minimum firsthand experience should be secured to foster students experimentation skills and provide students chances to engage with unexpected phenomena relevant to tacit knowledge and the nature of science. Note that a blended learning format can be an alternative that provides students with both hands-on and minds-on experiences. (A2) Instructors and students must have synchronous interactions in a temporal aspect. However, whether the spatial co-presence is necessary is not so manifest. (A3) If possible, a semester-long open-ended laboratory class would be the best chance to invite students to in-depth inquiry thinking. However, the gap between the theoretical prediction and the real experimental data seems to be the plausible locus where an inquiry may arise for cookbook-style labs in a practical sense. Therefore, the pre-lab activity, the characteristics of data, and peer discussions should be designed carefully. (A4) If the culture surrounding the laboratory education site favors the hand or mind as a cognitive channel or shapes the interaction between instructors and students vertically or horizontally, the answer would be yes. (A5) The notion of formative assessment of the instructional system may help make the laboratory courses more adaptive and flexible in various instructional situations, as in the BLEND model developed in Study 3. The instructors and students at Hankuk University in 2020 were genuine agents who struggled to implement and take URL courses. And their lessons enabled the development of the BLEND model and the contemplation of the essence of laboratory sessions toward the post-COVID-19 laboratory education.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Study Background 1 1.2 Purpose of Research 5 1.3 Research field 7 1.3.1 The Republic of Korea in the COVID-19 situation 8 1.3.2 Hankuk University in the Republic of Korea 9 1.4 Study Design 10 1.4.1 Study 1 11 1.4.2 Study 2 11 1.4.3 Study 3 12 Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework 13 2.1 Laboratory in Science Education 15 2.1.1 The purpose of laboratory 15 2.1.2 Hands-on versus minds-on debate 17 2.1.3 Interaction in laboratory 20 2.1.4 Laboratory report writing and feedback 21 2.2 E-learning and Effective Teaching Strategies 22 2.2.1 The promises and requirements of e-learning 22 2.2.2 Media presentation 24 2.2.3 Aspects of online interaction 25 2.2.4 Assessment and feedback 26 2.3 (Re-)emergence of Remote Laboratory 27 2.3.1 Studies on remote laboratories before the COVID-19 27 2.3.2 Studies on remote laboratories after the COVID-19 29 2.3.3 The meaning of remote laboratory revisited 31 2.3.4 Remote laboratory as blended learning 34 2.4 Instructor Agency and Sociocultural Perspective 38 2.4.1 Instructor agency in science education 38 2.4.2 Sociocultural perspective on Korean science instructors' agency 39 2.5 Design and Development Research 42 2.5.1 Utility of instructional design model 42 2.5.2 The need for a flexible model 43 2.5.3 Model development and validation research 44 2.5.4 Rapid prototyping approach 45 Chapter 3. Study 1: University Instructors' Agency During the Implementation of Remote Laboratory 46 3.1 Research Questions 47 3.2 Method 48 3.2.1 Participants 48 3.2.2 Qualitative interviews 49 3.2.3 Data analysis 50 3.3 Results 51 3.3.1 Macro-level context: South Korea 52 3.3.2 Meso-level context: Hankuk University and previous practices in laboratory courses 54 3.3.3 Micro-level context: Remote laboratories according to science discipline 56 3.3.4 The remote laboratories implemented at Hankuk University in the spring semester of 2020 60 3.3.5 Issues raised during the implementation of remote laboratories 64 3.3.6 University instructors' perceptions of the learning outcomes of remote laboratories 67 3.3.7

Teaching and Learning Tools for Introductory Programming in University Courses

Difficulties in teaching and learning introductory programming have been studied over the years. The students' difficulties lead to failure, lack of motivation, and abandonment of courses. The problem is more significant in computer courses, where learning programming is essential. Programming is difficult and requires a lot of work from teachers and students. Programming is a process of transforming a mental plan into a computer program. The main goal of teaching programming is for students to develop their skills to create computer programs that solve real problems. There are several factors that can be at the origin of the problem, such as the abstract concepts that programming implies; the skills needed to solve problems; the mental skills needed to decompose problems; many of the students never had the opportunity to practice computational thinking or programming; students must know the syntax, semantics, and structure of a new unnatural language in a short period of time. In this work, we present a set of strategies, included in an application, with the objective of helping teachers and students. Early identification of potential problems and prompt response is critical to preventing student failure and reducing dropout rates. This work also describes a predictive machine learning (neural network) model of student failure based on the student profile, which is built over the course of programming lessons by continuously monitoring and evaluating student activities

OULDI-JISC Project Evaluation Report: the impact of new curriculum design tools and approaches on institutional process and design cultures

This report presents research and evaluation undertaken by the OULDI-JISC Project (Open University Learning Design Initiative JISC Project) between 2008 and 2012. In particular, it considers the impact of new curriculum design tools and approaches piloted by the project on institutional processes and design cultures. These tools and approaches include tools for sharing learning design expertise (Cloudworks), visualising designs (CompendiumLD, Module Map, Activity Profile) and for supporting design and reflection in workshops (Facilitation Cards, workshop activities, etc.). The project has adopted a learning design approach so as to help foreground pedagogy and learner experience. Nine pilots have been completed across six UK universities

Developing sustainable business models for institutions’ provision of open educational resources: Learning from OpenLearn users’ motivations and experiences

Universities across the globe have, for some time, been exploring the possibilities for achieving public benefit and generating business and visibility through releasing and sharing open educational resources (OER). Many have written about the need to develop sustainable and profitable business models around the production and release of OER. Downes (2006), for example, has questioned the financial sustainability of OER production at scale. Many of the proposed business models focus on OER’s value in generating revenue and detractors of OER have questioned whether they are in competition with formal education. This paper reports on a study intended to broaden the conversation about OER business models to consider the motivations and experiences of OER users as the basis for making a better informed decision about whether OER and formal learning are competitive or complementary with each other. The study focused on OpenLearn - the Open University’s (OU) web-based platform for OER, which hosts hundreds of online courses and videos and is accessed by over 3,000,000 users a year. A large scale survey and follow-up interviews with OpenLearn users worldwide revealed that university provided OER can offer learners a bridge to formal education, allowing them to try out a subject before registering on a formal course and to build confidence in their abilities as learners. In addition, it was found that using OER during formal paid-for study can improve learners’ performance and self-reliance, leading to increased retention and satisfaction with the learning experience

Engagement in a virtual learning environment predicts academic achievement in research methods modules: A longitudinal study combining behavioral and self-reported data

The use of virtual learning environments (VLE) has grown exponentially in the past years. Research indicates that students’ online learning behavior predicts their academic performance and that students’ academic emotions can play a key role in this process. However, few studies have attempted to investigate the effectiveness of VLE activities in learning achievement within psychology education. In this longitudinal study, we analyzed the relationship between students’ activity in a VLE, their attendance, academic emotions, and module grades at a face-to-face-based university in the United Kingdom. Data were collected over 1 year across two research methods modules, each of which is compulsory for a psychology degree. VLE and attendance data from 210 students were gathered for the first-year module, with 152 students continuing to the second year. The data were cross-referenced with students’ module grades, alongside self-reported emotion data for a subset of students. The results showed that overall VLE activity and the use of specific online tools such as optional online tests and lecture recording were important predictors of academic achievement. While some significant relationships between emotions and student’s learning behavior and achievement were found, these correlations were relatively small and not consistent throughout the year. These findings have potential implications for curriculum design, particularly by making psychology educators aware of the usefulness of VLE activities and tools from the onset of students’ research methods learning journey

Open educational resources for all? Comparing user motivations and characteristics across The Open University’s iTunes U channel and OpenLearn platform.

With the rise in access to mobile multimedia devices, educational institutions have exploited the iTunes U platform as an additional channel to provide free educational resources with the aim of profile-raising and breaking down barriers to education. For those prepared to invest in content preparation, it is possible to produce interactive, portable material that can be made available globally. Commentators have questioned both the financial implications for platform-specific content production, and the availability of devices for learners to access it (Osborne, 2012). The Open University (OU) makes its free educational resources available on iTunes U and via its web-based open educational resources (OER) platform, OpenLearn. The OU’s OER on iTunes U reached the 60 million download mark in 2013; its OpenLearn platform boasts 27 million unique visitors since 2006. This paper reports the results of a large-scale study of users of the OU’s iTunes U channel and OpenLearn platform. A survey of several thousand users revealed key differences in demographics between those accessing OER via the web and via iTunes U. In addition, the data allowed comparison between three groups: formal learners, informal learners and educators. The study raises questions about whether university-provided OER meet the needs of users and makes recommendations for how content can be modified to suit their needs. As the publishing of OER becomes core to business, we reflect on reasons why understanding users’ motivations and demographics is vital, allowing for needs-led resource provision and content that is adapted to best achieve learner satisfaction, and to deliver institutions’ social mission