Outer membrane β-barrel structure prediction through the lens of AlphaFold2

Most proteins found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria share a common domain: the transmembrane β-barrel. These outer membrane β-barrels (OMBBs) occur in multiple sizes, and different families with a wide range of functions evolved independently by amplification from a pool of homologous ancestral ββ-hairpins. This is part of the reason why predicting their three-dimensional (3D) structure, especially by homology modeling, is a major challenge. Recently, DeepMind's AlphaFold v2 (AF2) became the first structure prediction method to reach close-to-experimental atomic accuracy in CASP even for difficult targets. However, membrane proteins, especially OMBBs, were not abundant during its training, raising the question of how accurate the predictions are for these families. In this study, we assessed the performance of AF2 in the prediction of OMBBs of various topologies using an in-house-developed tool for the analysis of OMBB 3D structures, barrOs . In agreement with previous studies on other membrane protein classes, our results indicate that AF2 predicts OMBB structures at high accuracy independently of the use of templates, even for novel topologies absent from the training set. These results provide confidence on the models generated by AF2 and open the door to the structural elucidation of novel OMBB topologies identified in high-throughput OMBB annotation studies

The SWISS-MODEL Repository and associated resources

SWISS-MODEL Repository (http://swissmodel.expasy.org/repository/) is a database of 3D protein structure models generated by the SWISS-MODEL homology-modelling pipeline. The aim of the SWISS-MODEL Repository is to provide access to an up-to-date collection of annotated 3D protein models generated by automated homology modelling for all sequences in Swiss-Prot and for relevant models organisms. Regular updates ensure that target coverage is complete, that models are built using the most recent sequence and template structure databases, and that improvements in the underlying modelling pipeline are fully utilised. As of September 2008, the database contains 3.4 million entries for 2.7 million different protein sequences from the UniProt database. SWISS-MODEL Repository allows the users to assess the quality of the models in the database, search for alternative template structures, and to build models interactively via SWISS-MODEL Workspace (http://swissmodel.expasy.org/workspace/). Annotation of models with functional information and cross-linking with other databases such as the Protein Model Portal (http://www.proteinmodelportal.org) of the PSI Structural Genomics Knowledge Base facilitates the navigation between protein sequence and structure resources

The SWISS-MODEL Repository and associated resources

SWISS-MODEL Repository (http://swissmodel.expasy.org/repository/) is a database of 3D protein structure models generated by the SWISS-MODEL homology-modelling pipeline. The aim of the SWISS-MODEL Repository is to provide access to an up-to-date collection of annotated 3D protein models generated by automated homology modelling for all sequences in Swiss-Prot and for relevant models organisms. Regular updates ensure that target coverage is complete, that models are built using the most recent sequence and template structure databases, and that improvements in the underlying modelling pipeline are fully utilised. As of September 2008, the database contains 3.4 million entries for 2.7 million different protein sequences from the UniProt database. SWISS-MODEL Repository allows the users to assess the quality of the models in the database, search for alternative template structures, and to build models interactively via SWISS-MODEL Workspace (http://swissmodel.expasy.org/workspace/). Annotation of models with functional information and cross-linking with other databases such as the Protein Model Portal (http://www.proteinmodelportal.org) of the PSI Structural Genomics Knowledge Base facilitates the navigation between protein sequence and structure resource

Homology modeling of &#947-aminobutyrateaminotransferase, a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme of Homo sapiens: Molecular modeling approach to rational drug design against epilepsy

γ-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase (GABA-AT) is a pyridoxal phosphate dependent homodimeric enzyme of 50-kD subunits. It is a potential drug target against epilepsy. The three-dimensional structure of GABA-AT is not experimentally known, and we thus resorted to homology modelling to build a model based on x-ray crystal structure of pig liver GABA-AT to 3.0 Å resolution. Knowledge of the threedimensional structure of GABA-AT would greatly advance the development of novel lead compounds targeting this molecule. The protein’s conservity was verified by performing multiple alignments using ClustalW and MUSCLE programs. The model was further checked for its correctness by predicting the 2D and 3D structures, which validates the structure.Key words: γ-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase (GABA-AT), epilepsy, crystal structure, homology modeling, BLAST, template

The Hepatitis E Virus Polyproline Region Is Involved in Viral Adaptation

Genomes of hepatitis E virus (HEV), rubivirus and cutthroat virus (CTV) contain a region of high proline density and low amino acid (aa) complexity, named the polyproline region (PPR). In HEV genotypes 1, 3 and 4, it is the only region within the non-structural open reading frame (ORF1) with positive selection (4–10 codons with dN/dS>1). This region has the highest density of sites with homoplasy values >0.5. Genotypes 3 and 4 show ∼3-fold increase in homoplastic density (HD) in the PPR compared to any other region in ORF1, genotype 1 does not exhibit significant HD (p<0.0001). PPR sequence divergence was found to be 2-fold greater for HEV genotypes 3 and 4 than for genotype 1. The data suggest the PPR plays an important role in host-range adaptation. Although the PPR appears to be hypervariable and homoplastic, it retains as much phylogenetic signal as any other similar sized region in the ORF1, indicating that convergent evolution operates within the major HEV phylogenetic lineages. Analyses of sequence-based secondary structure and the tertiary structure identify PPR as an intrinsically disordered region (IDR), implicating its role in regulation of replication. The identified propensity for the disorder-to-order state transitions indicates the PPR is involved in protein-protein interactions. Furthermore, the PPR of all four HEV genotypes contains seven putative linear binding motifs for ligands involved in the regulation of a wide number of cellular signaling processes. Structure-based analysis of possible molecular functions of these motifs showed the PPR is prone to bind a wide variety of ligands. Collectively, these data suggest a role for the PPR in HEV adaptation. Particularly as an IDR, the PPR likely contributes to fine tuning of viral replication through protein-protein interactions and should be considered as a target for development of novel anti-viral drugs

Familial hypomagnesaemia, Hypercalciuria and Nephrocalcinosis associated with a novel mutation of the highly conserved leucine residue 116 of Claudin 16 in a Chinese patient with a delayed diagnosis: A case report

Background: Sixty mutations of claudin 16 coding gene have been reported in familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC) patients. Recent investigations revealed that a highly conserved glycine-leucine-tryptophan (115G-L-W117) motif in the first extracellular segment (ESC1) of claudin 16 might be essential for stabilization of the appropriately folded ECS1 structure and conservation of normal claudin 16 function. However, neither missense nor nonsense mutation has ever been described in this motif. Our study aimed at identifying mutations in a Chinese patient with FHHNC and exploring the association between genotype and phenotype. Case presentation: A 33-year-old female presented with 4 years history of recurrent acute pyelonephritis without other notable past medical history. Her healthy parents, who aged 56 and 53 respectively, were second cousins, and her only sibling died from renal failure without definite cause at age 25. Renal ultrasound imaging demonstrated atrophic kidneys and bilateral nephrocalcinosis. The laboratory workup revealed impaired renal function (Stage CKD IV), hypocalcemia and mild hypomagnesemia, accompanied with marked renal loss of magnesium and hypercalciuria. During the follow-up, treatment with calcitriol and calcium but not with magnesium was difficult to achieve normal serum calcium levels, whereas her serum magnesium concentration fluctuated within normal ranges. In the end, the patient unavoidably reached ESRD at 36 years old. The clinical features and family history suggested the diagnosis of FHHNC. To make a definite diagnosis, we use whole-exome sequencing to identify the disease-causing mutations and Sanger sequencing to confirm the mutation co-segregation in the family. As a result, a novel homozygous mutation (c.346C > G, p.Leu116Val) in115G-L-W117motif of claudin 16 was identified. Her parents, grandmother and one of her cousins carried heterozygous p.Leu116Val, whereas 200 unrelated controls did not carry this mutation. Conclusions: We described a delayed diagnosis patient with FHHNC in the Chinese population and identified a novel missense mutation in the highly conserved115G-L-W117motif of claudin 16 for the first time. According to the reported data and the information deduced from 3D modeling, we speculate that this mutation probably reserve partial residual function which might be related to the slight phenotype of the patient

A structural biology community assessment of AlphaFold2 applications

Most proteins fold into 3D structures that determine how they function and orchestrate the biological processes of the cell. Recent developments in computational methods for protein structure predictions have reached the accuracy of experimentally determined models. Although this has been independently verified, the implementation of these methods across structural-biology applications remains to be tested. Here, we evaluate the use of AlphaFold2 (AF2) predictions in the study of characteristic structural elements; the impact of missense variants; function and ligand binding site predictions; modeling of interactions; and modeling of experimental structural data. For 11 proteomes, an average of 25% additional residues can be confidently modeled when compared with homology modeling, identifying structural features rarely seen in the Protein Data Bank. AF2-based predictions of protein disorder and complexes surpass dedicated tools, and AF2 models can be used across diverse applications equally well compared with experimentally determined structures, when the confidence metrics are critically considered. In summary, we find that these advances are likely to have a transformative impact in structural biology and broader life-science research

Structural predictions for the ligand-binding region of glycoprotein hormone receptors and the nature of hormone–receptor interactions

AbstractBackground: Glycoprotein hormones influence the development and function of the ovary, testis and thyroid by binding to specific high-affinity receptors. The extracellular domains of these receptors are members of the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) protein superfamily and are responsible for the high-affinity binding. The crystal structure of a glycoprotein hormone, namely human choriogonadotropin (hCG), is known, but neither the receptor structure, mode of hormone binding, nor mechanism for activation, have been established.Results Despite very low sequence similarity between exon-demarcated LRRs in the receptors and the LRRs of porcine ribonuclease inhibitor (RI), the secondary structures for the two repeat sets are found to be alike. Constraints on curvature and β-barrel geometry from the sequence pattern for repeated βα units suggest that the receptors contain three-dimensional structures similar to that of RI. With the RI crystal structure as a template, models were constructed for exons 2–8 of the receptors. The model for this portion of the choriogonadotropin receptor is complementary in shape and electrostatic characteristics to the surface of hCG at an identified focus of hormone–receptor interaction.Conclusion The predicted models for the structures and mode of hormone binding of the glycoprotein hormone receptors are to a large extent consistent with currently available biochemical and mutational data. Repeated sequences in β-barrel proteins are shown to have general implications for constraints on structure. Averaging techniques used here to recognize the structural motif in these receptors should also apply to other proteins with repeated sequences

3D modeling of ribosomal RNA using cryo-electron microscopy density maps

Ribosomes are macromolecular protein-RNA complexes translating mRNA into protein. To date, crystal structures are available for the bacterial 30S and archaeal 50S subunits, as well as the complete bacterial 70S ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes are much more complex in terms of ribosomal RNA and proteins. However, to date high-resolution crystal structures of eukaryotic ribosomes or ribosomal subunits are lacking. In order to build reliable models for the eukaryotic rRNA, we developed an approach for large scale homology and de novo modeling of RNA and subsequent exible tting into high-resolution cryo-EM density maps. Using this approach we built a model of the T. aestivum and the S. cerevisiae ribosome based on available cryo-EM maps at 5.5 Å and 6.1 Å resolution, respectively. The model comprises of 98% of the eukaryotic rRNA including all 21 RNA expansion segments (ES) and structurally six variable regions. Further, we were able to localize 74/80 (92.5%) of the ribosomal proteins. The model reveals unique ES-ES and r-protein-ES interactions, providing new insight into the structure and evolution of the eukaryotic ribosome. Moreover, the model was used for analyzing functional ribosomal complexes, i.e. the characterization of dierent nascent polypeptide chains within the ribosomal tunnel, intermediates of protein translocation as well as mRNA quality control

Theoretical study of the interaction of agonists with the 5-HT2A receptor

The 5-HT2A receptor (5-HT2AR) is a biogenic amine receptor that belongs to the class A of G protein coupled receptors. It is characterized by a low affinity for serotonin (5-HT) and for other primary amines. Introduction of an ortho-methoxybenzyl substituent at the amine nitrogen increases the partial agonistic activity by a factor of 40 to 1400 compared with 5-HT. The present study was to analyse the QSAR of a series of 51 5-HT2AR partial agonistic arylethylamines, tested in vascular in-vitro assays on rats, at a structure-based level and to suggest ligand binding sites. The compounds belong to three different structural classes, (1) indoles, (2) methoxybenzenes and (3) quinazolinediones. Following a hierarchical strategy, different methods have been applied which all contribute to the investigation of ligand-receptor interactions: fragment regression analysis (FRA), receptor modeling, docking studies and 3D QSAR approaches (comparative molecular field analysis, CoMFA, and comparative molecular similarity index analysis, CoMSIA). An initial FRA indicated that methoxy substituents at indole and phenyl derivatives increase the activity and may be involved in polar interactions with the 5-HT2AR. The large contribution of lipophilic substituents in p position of phenethylamines suggests fit to a specific hydrophobic pocket. Secondary benzylamines are more than one order of magnitude more active than their NH2 analogs. An ortho-OH or -OMe substituent at the benzyl moiety further increases activity. Homology models of the human and rat 5-HT2AR were generated using the crystal structure of bovine rhodopsin and of the beta2-adrenoceptor as templates. The derivation of the putative binding sites for the arylethylamines was based on the results from FRA and on mutagenesis data. Both templates led to 5-HT2AR models with similar topology of the binding pocket within the transmembrane domains TM3, TM5, TM6 and TM7. Docking studies with representative members of the three structural classes suggested that the aryl moieties and particularly para-substituents in phenyl derivatives fit into a hydrophobic pocket formed by Phe2435.47, Phe2445.48 and Phe3406.52. The 5-methoxy substituents in indole and phenyl compounds form H bonds with Ser2395.43. In each case, an additional H bond with Ser1593.36 may be assumed. The cationic amine interacts with the conserved Asp1553.32. The benzyl group of secondary arylethylamines is inserted into another hydrophobic pocket formed by Phe3396.51, Trp3677.40 and Tyr3707.43. In this region, the docking poses depend on the template used for model generation, leading to different interactions especially of ortho- substituents. The docking studies with the beta2-adrenoceptor based rat 5-HT2AR model provided templates for a structure-based alignment of the whole series which was used in 3D QSAR analyses of the partial agonistic activity. Both approaches, CoMFA and CoMSIA, led to highly predictive models with low complexity (cross-validated q2 of 0.72 and 0.81 at 4 and 3 components, respectively). The results were largely compatible with the binding site and confirm the docking studies and the suggested ligand-receptor interactions. Steric and hydrophobic field effects on the potency indicate a hydrophobic pocket around the aryl moiety and near the para position of phenyl derivatives and account for the increased activity of secondary benzylamines. The effects of electrostatic and H-bond acceptor fields suggest a favourable influence of negative charges around the aryl moiety, corresponding to the increase in potency caused by methoxy substituents in 2-, 4-, 5- and 6-position of phenethylamines and by the quinazolinedione oxygens. This is in accord with the role of Ser1593.36 and Ser2395.43 as H bond donors. At the benzyl moiety, the negative charge and the acceptor potential of 2-hydroxy and -methoxy substituents is of advantage. Agonists stabilize or induce active receptor states not reflected by the existing crystal structures. Based on models of different rhodopsin states, a homology modeling and ligand docking study on corresponding 5-HT2AR states suggested to be specific to agonist and partial agonist binding, respectively, was performed. The models indicate collective conformational changes of TM domains during activation. The different 5-HT2AR states are similar with respect to the amino acids interacting with the arylethylamines, but show individual topologies of the binding sites. The interconversion of states by TM movements may be accompanied by co-translations and rotations of the ligands. In the case of the secondary amines considered, the tight fit of the benzyl substituent into a hydrophobic pocket containing key residues in TM6 probably impedes the complete receptor activation due to inhibiting the rotation of this helix. High affinity of a partial agonist is therefore often at the expense of its ability to fully activate a receptor