BMP signaling is required for cell cleavage in preimplantation-mouse embryos.

The mechanisms regulating cell division during development of the mouse pre-implantation embryo are poorly understood. We have investigated whether bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling is involved in controlling cell cycle during mouse pre-implantation development. We mapped and quantitated the dynamic activities of BMP signaling through high-resolution immunofluorescence imaging combined with a 3D segmentation method. Immunostaining for phosphorylated Smad1/5/8 shows that BMP signaling is activated in mouse embryos as early as the 4-cell stage, and becomes spatially restricted by late blastocyst stage. Perturbation of BMP signaling in preimplantation mouse embryos, whether by treatment with a small molecule inhibitor, with Noggin protein, or by overexpression of a dominant-negative BMP receptor, indicates that BMPs regulate cell cleavage up to the morula stage. These results indicate that BMP signaling is active during mouse pre-implantation development and is required for cell cleavage in preimplantation mouse embryos

Methods for Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Embryo Cleavage In Vitro

Automated or semiautomated time-lapse analysis of early stage embryo images during the cleavage stage can give insight into the timing of mitosis, regularity of both division timing and pattern, as well as cell lineage. Simultaneous monitoring of molecular processes enables the study of connections between genetic expression and cell physiology and development. The study of live embryos poses not only new requirements on the hardware and embryo-holding equipment but also indirectly on analytical software and data analysis as four-dimensional video sequencing of embryos easily creates high quantities of data. The ability to continuously film and automatically analyze growing embryos gives new insights into temporal embryo development by studying morphokinetics as well as morphology. Until recently, this was not possible unless by a tedious manual process. In recent years, several methods have been developed that enable this dynamic monitoring of live embryos. Here we describe three methods with variations in hardware and software analysis and give examples of the outcomes. Together, these methods open a window to new information in developmental embryology, as embryo division pattern and lineage are studied in vivo

Stage-dependent changes of the nuclear architecture, envelope and lamina during mammalian early embryonic development studied with a novel 3D structured illumination microscopy protocol

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy performed via 3D structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) features an 8-fold volumetric resolution improvement over conventional microscopy and is well established on flat, adherent cells. However, blastomeres in mammalian embryos are non-adherent, round and large. Scanning whole mount mammalian embryos with 3D-SIM is prone to failure due to non-adherent embryos moving during scanning and a large distance to the cover glass. The biggest challenge and achievement of this doctorate thesis was the development of a novel method to perform 3D-SIM on mammalian embryos (“3D structured illumination microscopy of mammalian embryos and spermatozoa” published in BMC Developmental Biology). The development and fine-tuning of this method took over two years due to the time-intense generation of embryos and the subsequent two day long embryo staining, embedding and scanning with steps that required novel techniques such as micromanipulation which was not associated with sample preparation prior to this protocol. Problem identification was time-intensive since each of the numerous steps necessary could negatively affect the image quality. This method was fine-tuned during three studies. The first study “Reprogramming of fibroblast nuclei in cloned bovine embryos involves major structural remodeling with both striking similarities and differences to nuclear phenotypes of in vitro fertilized embryos” (published in Nucleus) investigates the profound changes of nuclear architecture during cattle preimplantation development of embryos generated by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Fibroblast nuclei in embryos generated by SCNT go through similar changes in nuclear architecture as embryos generated by IVF. In both embryo types the occurrence of a large, chromatin-free lacuna in the center of nuclei around major embryonic genome activation (EGA) was noted. Similarly, the chromosome territory-interchromatin compartment (CT-IC) model applied to both types of embryos, featuring a lacuna or not, with an enrichment of RNA polymerase II and H3K4me3, a histone modification for transcriptionally competent chromatin, in less concentrated chromatin and an enrichment of H3K9me3, a transcriptionally restrictive histone modification, in more concentrated chromatin. However, large, highly concentrated H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 clusters were noted in both embryo types at chromatin concentrations that did not fit to the model. The chromatin-free lacunas were highly enriched in newly synthesized mRNA. The second study “Remodeling of the Nuclear Envelope and Lamina during Bovine Preimplantation Development and Its Functional Implications” (published in PLOS ONE) presents the changes of the nuclear envelope and lamina during bovine preimplantation development. Before major EGA, chromatin-free areas of the nuclear periphery were also free of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), whereas after major EGA, the entire nuclear periphery was equipped with at least a fine layer of chromatin and associated NPCs. Three types of nuclear invaginations were predominant at different stages. The most common invagination was lamin B and NUP153 positive and was most prominent between the 2-cell and 8-cell stages until the onset of major EGA. Lamin B positive, but NUP153 negative invaginations were most prominent during stages with large nuclear volume and surface reductions. The least common invagination was lamin B negative but NUP153 positive and occurred almost exclusively at the morula stage. RNA-Seq and 3D-SIM data showed large deposits of spliced NUP153 mRNA and cytoplasmic NUP153 protein clusters until shortly after major EGA. NUP153 association with chromatin was initiated at metaphase. The third study “Stage-dependent remodeling of the nuclear envelope and lamina during rabbit early embryonic development” (published in the Journal of Reproduction and Development) demonstrated that rabbit embryonic nuclei feature a nuclear invagination type containing a large volume of cytoplasm that provides cytoplasmic proximity to nucleoli in addition to the small volume invaginations that were previously observed in bovine nuclei. The underlying mechanism for these two invaginations must differ from each other since small volume invaginations were frequently emanating from large volume invaginations emanating from the nuclear border but large volume invaginations were never emanating from small volume invaginations emanating from the nuclear border. Abundance of import/export competent invaginations featuring NPCs peaked at the 4-cell stage, which is the last stage before a drastic nuclear volume decline and also the last stage before major EGA is initiated at the 8- to 16-cell stage. Import/export incompetent invaginations positive for lamin B but not NUP153 peaked at the 2-cell stage. This was the stage with the largest variability in nuclear volumes. This may hint at an interphase nuclear surface reduction mechanism. Additionally, previously generated but unpublished 3D-FISH data about the localization changes of a stably inserted reporter gene upon activation in cloned bovine embryos was analyzed and documented in the study “Positional changes of a pluripotency marker gene during structural reorganization of fibroblast nuclei in cloned early bovine embryos” (published in Nucleus). This study showed that the stably inserted OCT-4 reporter gene “GOF” in bovine fetal fibroblasts was initially moved towards the nuclear interior in day 2 bovine embryos generated by SCNT of bovine fetal fibroblasts. However, in day 4 SCNT embryos the localization of GOF had moved towards the periphery while it was still activated. Its carrier chromosome territory did not significantly move differently compared with the non-carrier homolog. Constant proximity of GOF to its carrier chromosome territory ruled out a movement by giant loops. In cooperation with the Department of Histology and Embryology of the Ege University (Izmir, Turkey) the destructive effects of cryopreservation on blastomere integrity were analyzed in the study “Ultra-Structural Alterations in In Vitro Produced Four-Cell Bovine Embryos Following Controlled Slow Freezing or Vitrification” (published in Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia). The cryopreservation method slow freezing caused more damage to blastomeres and to the zona pellucida than its fast freezing alternative vitrification. This was most likely caused by ice crystal formation and the longer exposure to the toxic side effects of cryoprotectants before freezing was complete

Molecular, morphological, and kinetic diagnosis of human preimplantation embryo viability

There have been phenomenal advances in the field of reproductive medicine and success rates following in vitro fertilisation have improved dramatically in recent years. The aim of this project was to improve our understanding of human preimplantation embryo development by identifying potential markers of viability that may aid us in selecting the best embryo for uterine transfer in the clinical embryology laboratory. Investigations into the distribution of cytoskeletal F-actin in human embryos demonstrated that a highly organised actin cortex is important for embryo cleavage and continued development to the blastocyst stage. Whilst they are polarised in the mouse from the oocyte to the blastocyst, the regulatory proteins leptin and STAT3 are co-localised only at the oocyte stage in humans, and are distributed within different cytoplasmic domains in human cleavage stage embryos and blastocysts. Whether polarity in humans is predetermined in the oocyte remains elusive, but none of the evidence generated in this thesis supports this idea. Leptin transiently activates STAT3 via the long form of the leptin receptor, and most significantly in the ICM of human day 6 blastocysts. Morphological features of blastocysts that can be visualised microscopically, such as a double ICM and cytoplasmic projections connecting the ICM to the TE, provide clues to their viability and may help us to choose the most suitable embryo from a cohort when deciding which to transfer. Nuclear volumes may in future contribute to this selection. Using time lapse technology to study cleavage patterns is now a routine occurrence in the clinical embryology laboratory. The results in this thesis show that distinctive patterns of divisions and the site at which blastocysts hatch can provide us with more information than a snap-shot morphological evaluation. Finally, contributing to the development of modelling software and predictive algorithms for the study of human embryos, particularly in time lapse imaging, means that our understanding of this fascinating area of medicine will continue to progress

Computational Imaging for Phase Retrieval and Biomedical Applications

In conventional imaging, optimizing hardware is prioritized to enhance image quality directly. Digital signal processing is viewed as supplementary. Computational imaging intentionally distorts images through modulation schemes in illumination or sensing. Then its reconstruction algorithms extract desired object information from raw data afterwards. Co-designing hardware and algorithms reduces demands on hardware and achieves the same or even better image quality. Algorithm design is at the heart of computational imaging, with model-based inverse problem or data-driven deep learning methods as approaches. This thesis presents research work from both perspectives, with a primary focus on the phase retrieval issue in computational microscopy and the application of deep learning techniques to address biomedical imaging challenges. The first half of the thesis begins with Fourier ptychography, which was employed to overcome chromatic aberration problems in multispectral imaging. Then, we proposed a novel computational coherent imaging modality based on Kramers-Kronig relations, aiming to replace Fourier ptychography as a non-iterative method. While this approach showed promise, it lacks certain essential characteristics of the original Fourier ptychography. To address this limitation, we introduced two additional algorithms to form a whole package scheme. Through comprehensive evaluation, we demonstrated that the combined scheme outperforms Fourier ptychography in achieving high-resolution, large field-of-view, aberration-free coherent imaging. The second half of the thesis shifts focus to deep-learning-based methods. In one project, we optimized the scanning strategy and image processing pipeline of an epifluorescence microscope to address focus issues. Additionally, we leveraged deep-learning-based object detection models to automate cell analysis tasks. In another project, we predicted the polarity status of mouse embryos from bright field images using adapted deep learning models. These findings highlight the capability of computational imaging to automate labor-intensive processes, and even outperform humans in challenging tasks.</p

Stage-dependent changes of the nuclear architecture, envelope and lamina during mammalian early embryonic development studied with a novel 3D structured illumination microscopy protocol

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy performed via 3D structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) features an 8-fold volumetric resolution improvement over conventional microscopy and is well established on flat, adherent cells. However, blastomeres in mammalian embryos are non-adherent, round and large. Scanning whole mount mammalian embryos with 3D-SIM is prone to failure due to non-adherent embryos moving during scanning and a large distance to the cover glass. The biggest challenge and achievement of this doctorate thesis was the development of a novel method to perform 3D-SIM on mammalian embryos (“3D structured illumination microscopy of mammalian embryos and spermatozoa” published in BMC Developmental Biology). The development and fine-tuning of this method took over two years due to the time-intense generation of embryos and the subsequent two day long embryo staining, embedding and scanning with steps that required novel techniques such as micromanipulation which was not associated with sample preparation prior to this protocol. Problem identification was time-intensive since each of the numerous steps necessary could negatively affect the image quality. This method was fine-tuned during three studies. The first study “Reprogramming of fibroblast nuclei in cloned bovine embryos involves major structural remodeling with both striking similarities and differences to nuclear phenotypes of in vitro fertilized embryos” (published in Nucleus) investigates the profound changes of nuclear architecture during cattle preimplantation development of embryos generated by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Fibroblast nuclei in embryos generated by SCNT go through similar changes in nuclear architecture as embryos generated by IVF. In both embryo types the occurrence of a large, chromatin-free lacuna in the center of nuclei around major embryonic genome activation (EGA) was noted. Similarly, the chromosome territory-interchromatin compartment (CT-IC) model applied to both types of embryos, featuring a lacuna or not, with an enrichment of RNA polymerase II and H3K4me3, a histone modification for transcriptionally competent chromatin, in less concentrated chromatin and an enrichment of H3K9me3, a transcriptionally restrictive histone modification, in more concentrated chromatin. However, large, highly concentrated H3K4me3 and H3K9me3 clusters were noted in both embryo types at chromatin concentrations that did not fit to the model. The chromatin-free lacunas were highly enriched in newly synthesized mRNA. The second study “Remodeling of the Nuclear Envelope and Lamina during Bovine Preimplantation Development and Its Functional Implications” (published in PLOS ONE) presents the changes of the nuclear envelope and lamina during bovine preimplantation development. Before major EGA, chromatin-free areas of the nuclear periphery were also free of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), whereas after major EGA, the entire nuclear periphery was equipped with at least a fine layer of chromatin and associated NPCs. Three types of nuclear invaginations were predominant at different stages. The most common invagination was lamin B and NUP153 positive and was most prominent between the 2-cell and 8-cell stages until the onset of major EGA. Lamin B positive, but NUP153 negative invaginations were most prominent during stages with large nuclear volume and surface reductions. The least common invagination was lamin B negative but NUP153 positive and occurred almost exclusively at the morula stage. RNA-Seq and 3D-SIM data showed large deposits of spliced NUP153 mRNA and cytoplasmic NUP153 protein clusters until shortly after major EGA. NUP153 association with chromatin was initiated at metaphase. The third study “Stage-dependent remodeling of the nuclear envelope and lamina during rabbit early embryonic development” (published in the Journal of Reproduction and Development) demonstrated that rabbit embryonic nuclei feature a nuclear invagination type containing a large volume of cytoplasm that provides cytoplasmic proximity to nucleoli in addition to the small volume invaginations that were previously observed in bovine nuclei. The underlying mechanism for these two invaginations must differ from each other since small volume invaginations were frequently emanating from large volume invaginations emanating from the nuclear border but large volume invaginations were never emanating from small volume invaginations emanating from the nuclear border. Abundance of import/export competent invaginations featuring NPCs peaked at the 4-cell stage, which is the last stage before a drastic nuclear volume decline and also the last stage before major EGA is initiated at the 8- to 16-cell stage. Import/export incompetent invaginations positive for lamin B but not NUP153 peaked at the 2-cell stage. This was the stage with the largest variability in nuclear volumes. This may hint at an interphase nuclear surface reduction mechanism. Additionally, previously generated but unpublished 3D-FISH data about the localization changes of a stably inserted reporter gene upon activation in cloned bovine embryos was analyzed and documented in the study “Positional changes of a pluripotency marker gene during structural reorganization of fibroblast nuclei in cloned early bovine embryos” (published in Nucleus). This study showed that the stably inserted OCT-4 reporter gene “GOF” in bovine fetal fibroblasts was initially moved towards the nuclear interior in day 2 bovine embryos generated by SCNT of bovine fetal fibroblasts. However, in day 4 SCNT embryos the localization of GOF had moved towards the periphery while it was still activated. Its carrier chromosome territory did not significantly move differently compared with the non-carrier homolog. Constant proximity of GOF to its carrier chromosome territory ruled out a movement by giant loops. In cooperation with the Department of Histology and Embryology of the Ege University (Izmir, Turkey) the destructive effects of cryopreservation on blastomere integrity were analyzed in the study “Ultra-Structural Alterations in In Vitro Produced Four-Cell Bovine Embryos Following Controlled Slow Freezing or Vitrification” (published in Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia). The cryopreservation method slow freezing caused more damage to blastomeres and to the zona pellucida than its fast freezing alternative vitrification. This was most likely caused by ice crystal formation and the longer exposure to the toxic side effects of cryoprotectants before freezing was complete

Cytokinesis in the mouse preimplantation embryo : mechanism and consequence of failure

Essentiel au maintien d’un organisme sain, la division cellulaire est un processus biologique composée de deux phases : la mitose et la cytokinèse. Au cours de la mitose, un fuseau mitotique bipolaire est assemblé et les chromosomes s’alignent au niveau de la plaque métaphasique par l’attachement des kinétochores aux microtubules du fuseau. Une fois les chromosomes alignés, les chromatides soeurs sont séparées par les microtubules pendant l'anaphase et sont ségréguées entre les cellules filles. La cytokinèse est initiée peu après le début de l'anaphase, marquant ainsi la fin de la division cellulaire en séparant le cytoplasme en deux nouvelles cellules filles. Une exécution précise de la mitose et de la cytokinèse est essentielle pour le maintien de l'intégrité du génome. L'échec de l'un de ces processus affecte la fidélité génétique. Les erreurs de ségrégation des chromosomes durant la mitose peuvent entraîner un gain ou une perte de chromosomes entiers, appelé aneuploïdie. Tandis que l'échec de la cytokinèse conduit à la formation d'une cellule binucléée avec un génome entièrement dupliqué, appelé tétraploïdie. Dans les cellules somatiques, la tétraploïdie peut conduire à l'arrêt du cycle cellulaire, à la mort cellulaire, ou provoquer une instabilité chromosomique (CIN), favorisant ainsi la prolifération de cellules avec un potentiel tumorigène. Par conséquent, il est essentiel de bien comprendre la régulation et les causes potentielles de l’échec de la cytokinèse en particulier dans le contexte des systèmes multicellulaires comme l’embryon. En effet, dans ces systèmes, la réduction progressives de la taille des cellules coïncident avec les principaux évènements du développement. De plus, la binucléation est fréquemment observée dans les cliniques de fertilité chez les embryons humains. Cependant, l’impact de la binucléation sur les divisions préimplantatoires demeure inexpliqué à ce jour. Afin de déterminer les conséquences de la tétraploïdie, nous avons utilisé l'embryon de souris pour modèle et réalisé des expériences d'immunofluorescence à haute résolution et une imagerie sur cellules vivantes. Nous avons découvert que la tétraploïdie chez les embryons de souris provoque une CIN et l'aneuploïdie par un mécanisme différent de celui des cellules somatiques. Dans les cellules somatiques, la formation des fuseaux multipolaires causée par des centrosomes surnuméraires est le principal mécanisme conduisant à la tétraploïdie et ainsi, à une CIN. En revanche, chez les embryons de souris, qui ne possèdent pas de centrosomes, la tétraploïdie ne conduit pas à la formation des fuseaux multipolaires. Les embryons tétraploïdes de souris développent une CIN en raison d’une réduction du renouvellement des microtubules et d’une altération de l’activité de correction d’erreurs dans l’attachement des kinétochores aux microtubules. Ainsi, une mauvaise correction de l’attachement des kinétochores aux microtubules entraîne des niveaux élevés d'erreurs de ségrégation chromosomique. Dans le cadre d'une étude de suivi, nous avons ensuite utilisé des différentes expériences d'imageries sur des cellules vivantes et d'immunofluorescences. Celles-ci furent couplées à des micromanipulations de la taille des cellules, des techniques modifiant l'adhésion cellulaire et des approches de knock-down des protéines pour étudier les mécanismes de régulation de la cytokinèse. Les expériences d'imageries sur cellules vivantes et les micromanipulations du volume cytoplasmique ont démontré que la taille des cellules détermine la vitesse de constriction de l'anneau contractile, c'est-à-dire que la vitesse de constriction devient progressivement plus lente à mesure que la taille des cellules diminue. Cependant, ce phénomène n'a lieu que lorsque les embryons atteignent le stade de 16 cellules ce qui suggère qu'une limite supérieure de vitesse de constriction peut exister pour restreindre l’augmentation de cette vitesse quand les cellules sont trop grandes. La taille des cellules étant un déterminant de la progression de la cytokinèse, nos expériences de knock-down des protéines ont, de plus, démontré que la formation de la polarité cellulaire a un impact négatif sur l'assemblage et la constriction de l'anneau contractile dans les cellules externes au stade de morula. Plus précisément, nous avons constaté que la polarité limite le recrutement des composants de la cytokinèse spécifiquement d'un côté de l'anneau contractile, provoquant ainsi un déséquilibre de l’ingression du sillon de clivage et réduisant la vitesse de constriction dans les cellules externes. Nous spéculons que la polarité cellulaire agit comme un obstacle à la progression de la cytokinèse, rendant ainsi les cellules externes plus sensibles à un échec de la cytokinèse. Ces études ont démontré un nouveau mécanisme par lequel la tétraploïdie conduit à l’instabilité chromosomique et à l’aneuploïdie chez les embryons. Ainsi un défaut de la dynamique de correction de l’attachement des kinétochores aux microtubules entraîne une mauvaise ségrégation des chromosomes indépendamment à la formation des fuseaux multipolaires. Ce travail a mis en évidence un rôle inhibiteur de la polarité apicale inattendu sur la machinerie cytokinétique. Cette inhibition pourrait fournir une explication mécanistique de l’incidence élevée de la binucléation dans le trophectoderme. Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats contribuent à notre compréhension du contrôle spatio-temporel de la cytokinèse au cours du développement embryonnaire et fournissent de nouvelles informations mécanistiques sur les origines et les conséquences biologiques de la tétraploïdie chez les embryons préimplantatoires. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse ont des implications cliniques importantes, puisqu’ils fournissent des preuves définitives que la tétraploïdie générée par un échec de la cytokinèse est délétère pour le développement embryonnaire. Ces travaux mettent ainsi en lumière que la binucléation est un critère de sélection embryonnaire important à considérer lors des traitements de fertilité.Cell division is comprised of mitosis and cytokinesis and is an essential biological process for the maintenance of healthy organisms. During mitosis, a bipolar spindle is assembled, and the chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate via the attachment of kinetochores to spindle microtubules. Once chromosome alignment is achieved, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the microtubules during anaphase and segregated into the nascent daughter cells. Cytokinesis is initiated after anaphase onset and marks the completion of cell division by partitioning the cytoplasm of the dividing cell into two new daughter cells. Successful and timely completion of both mitosis and cytokinesis is key for the maintenance of genome integrity, and failure in either one of these processes affects genetic fidelity. Whereas chromosome segregation errors in mitosis can lead to whole chromosome gains or losses, termed aneuploidy, cytokinesis failure leads to the formation of a binucleated cell with an entirely duplicated genome, termed tetraploidy. In somatic cells, tetraploidy can either lead to cell cycle arrest and death or cause chromosomal instability (CIN), thereby promoting the proliferation of cells with high tumorigenic potential. Therefore, understanding cytokinesis regulation and the potential causes of cytokinesis failure is key, especially in the context of multicellular embryonic systems, wherein progressive cell size reductions coincide with developmental transitions. Moreover, binucleation is frequently observed in human embryos in fertility clinics, and whether binucleation impacts early divisions remains elusive. To elucidate the consequences of tetraploidy, we used the mouse embryo as a model and employed high-resolution immunofluorescence and live-cell imaging experiments. We found that tetraploidy in mouse embryos causes CIN and aneuploidy by a mechanism distinct from that of somatic cells. Whereas in somatic cells multipolar spindle formation caused by supernumerary centrosomes is the major mechanism by which tetraploidy leads to CIN, in mouse embryos - which are acentriolar – tetraploidy does not lead to multipolar spindle formation. Instead, mouse tetraploid embryos develop CIN due to reduced microtubule turnover and impaired error correction activity, which prevents the timely resolution of kinetochore-microtubule mis-attachments, thereby leading to high levels of chromosome segregation errors. As a follow-up study, we next employed live imaging and immunofluorescence experiments, coupled with micromanipulations of cell size, cell adhesion and protein knockdown approaches to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of cytokinesis. Live imaging experiments and micromanipulations of cytoplasmic volume demonstrated that cell size determines the speed of contractile ring constriction i.e., constriction speed becomes progressively slower as the cells decrease in size. However, this phenomenon takes place only when embryos reach the 16-cell stage, suggesting that an upper limit of constriction speed may exist to restrict the scalability of ring constriction to cell size. In addition to cell size being a powerful determinant of cytokinesis progression, our loss-of-function experiments revealed that the emergence of cell polarity negatively impacts contractile ring assembly and constriction in outer cells at the morula stage. More specifically, we found that polarity limits the recruitment of cytokinesis components specifically to one side of the contractile ring, thereby causing unbalanced furrow ingression and reducing constriction speed in outer cells. We speculate that cell polarity may act as an obstacle for cytokinesis progression and render outer cells to be more susceptible to cytokinesis failure. These studies have revealed a novel mechanism by which tetraploidy leads to chromosomal instability and aneuploidy in embryos, wherein defective kinetochore-microtubule dynamics cause chromosome mis-segregation in a manner independent of multipolar spindle formation. In addition, this work unravelled an unexpected inhibitory role of apical polarity on the cytokinetic machinery that might provide a mechanistic explanation for the high incidences of binucleation in the outer layer of blastocysts. Altogether, these findings contribute to our understanding of the spatiotemporal control of cytokinesis during embryonic development and provide new mechanistic insights into the origins and biological consequences of tetraploidy in preimplantation embryos. The results presented in this thesis have substantial clinical implications, as they provide definitive evidence that tetraploidy generated by cytokinesis failure is deleterious to embryonic development, therefore underlining binucleation as an important embryo selection criterion to be considered during fertility treatments

Junctional complexes and cell-cell signalling in zebrafish morphogenesis

Intercellular junctions are composed of tight, gap and adherens junctions and have been shown to play many roles in embryonic morphogenesis. I have been studying the role that intercellular junctions play in zebrafish development. First I have studies the organisation of apical neuroepithelial junctions in the developing brain. By quantifying size and segmental patterning of the junctional arrangement in the hindbrain and elsewhere I have described a level of organisation that is characteristic of compartment boundaries. I describe a distinct pattern of apical junctions in both boundary and non-boundary regions. This pattern appears to be in part regulated by the Notch signalling pathway since apical junctions distribution is different in hdac1-/- zebrafish, which have deficient Notch-Delta signalling. Second I have established that boundary cells prevent the exchange of small molecular weight, gap junction permeable dyes between adjacent CNS compartments, suggesting that the compartments are separate developmental units. Third I have studies the role of gap junction mediated intercellular communication in the propagation of calcium waves and in the coordination of cell divisions in the zebrafish blastocyst. Calcium activity is cyclical, with cells producing a greater number of calcium transients and intercellular waves during cytokinesis than during interphase. In control conditions distinct waves of cell divisions spread across the embryo in an animal to vegetal progression. I show that both the calcium activity and the cell division waves require gap junction communication because pharmacological blockade of coupling reduces the frequency of calcium activity and disrupts cell division waves

Mechanism of cell polarisation and first lineage segregation in the human embryo

The formation of differential cell lineages in the mammalian blastocyst from the totipotent zygote is crucial for implantation and the success of the whole pregnancy. The first lineage segregation generates the polarised trophectoderm (TE) tissue, which forms the placenta, and the apolar inner cell mass (ICM), which mainly gives rise to all foetal tissues and also the yolk sac. The mechanism underlying this cell fate segregation has been extensively studied in the mouse embryo. However, when and how it takes place in the human embryo remains unclear. Here, using time-lapse imaging and 325 surplus human embryos, we provide a detailed characterisation of morphological events and transcription factor expression and localisation to understand how they lead to the first lineage segregation in human embryogenesis. We show that the first lineage segregation of the human embryo is triggered by cell polarisation that occurs at the 8-cell stage in two sequential steps. In the first step, F-actin becomes apically polarised concomitantly with embryo compaction. In the second step, the Par complex becomes polarised to form the apical cellular domain. Mechanistically, we show that activation of Phospholipase C (PLC) triggers actin polarisation and is therefore essential for apical domain formation, as is the case in mouse embryos. Finally, we show that, in contrast to the mouse embryo, the key extra-embryonic determinant GATA3 is expressed not only in extra-embryonic lineage precursors upon blastocyst formation. However, the cell polarity machinery enhances the expression and nuclear accumulation of GATA3. In summary, our results demonstrate for the first time that cell polarisation reinforces the first lineage segregation in the human embryo