Automatic and ironic behavior are both mediated by changes in the self-concept

Recent accounts suggest that prime-to-behavior effects are mediated by changes to the active self-concept. Likewise, recent reports of post-suppression behavioral rebound have attributed changes to behavior to changes in the self-concept. According to such accounts, whenever an activated trait or stereotype can be easily incorporated into the active self, behavioral assimilation (i.e., behavior consistent with the activated concept) is likely to ensue. Yet, little evidence has emerged to directly support the mediating role of changes to the self-concept. The present research was designed to examine whether changes to the active self-concept are responsible for changes in behavior following stereotype suppression and priming. Participants who suppressed or were primed with stereotypes of the elderly were more likely to endorse stereotypic traits as self-descriptive and to behave in stereotypic ways. Critically, the former effect significantly mediated the latter. Implications for theories of concept activation and behavior are discussed. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Reducing the Stereotypic Behavior of Individuals with Mental Retardation Using Response Cost within Applied Behavior Analysis

The focus of this study is to demonstrate that using response cost through applied behavior analysis is an effective treatment for reducing the stereotypic behaviors of individuals with mental retardation. McEntee and Saunders (1997) conducted a study in which response cost was used as an intervention within applied behavior analysis successfully to reduce the stereotypic behaviors in four male individuals with severe or profound mental retardation. An attempt was made to replicate this study and provide further research on the effects of response cost through applied behavior analysis on the stereotypic behaviors of individuals with mental retardation. There were three male participants between the ages of five and seven in this study who demonstrated stereotypic behaviors. Participant 2 and participant 3 had a label of mental retardation, and participant 1 ha a label of developmental delay. Results showed that response cost as an intervention within applied behavior analysis was effective overall in reducing the stereotypic behaviors of participant 1 and participant 2. Participant 3, however, showed an increase in stereotypic behavior. More research needs to be conducted on a larger group of participants before it can be concluded that response cost is or is not effective in reducing the stereotypic behaviors of individuals with mental retardation between the ages of five and seven

The physiological consequences of crib-biting in horses in response to an ACTH challenge test

Stereotypies are repetitive and relatively invariant patterns of behavior, which are observed in a wide range of species in captivity. Stereotypic behavior occurs when environmental demands produce a physiological response that, if sustained for an extended period, exceeds the natural physiological regulatory capacity of the organism, particularly in situations that include unpredictability and uncontrollability. One hypothesis is that stereotypic behavior functions to cope with stressful environments, but the existing evidence is contradictory. To address the coping hypothesis of stereotypies, we triggered physiological reactions in 22 horses affected by stereotypic behavior (crib-biters) and 21 non-crib-biters (controls), using an ACTH challenge test. Following administration of an ACTH injection, we measured saliva cortisol every 30 min and heart rate (HR) continuously for a period of 3 h. We did not find any differences in HR or HR variability between the two groups, but crib-biters had significantly higher cortisol responses than controls (mean ± SD: CB, 5.84 ± 2.62 ng/ml, C, 4.76 ± 3.04 ng/ml). Moreover, crib-biters that did not perform the stereotypic behavior during the 3- h test period (Group B) had significantly higher cortisol levels than controls, which was not the case of crib-biters showing stereotypic behavior (Group A) (A, 5.58 ± 2.69 ng/ml; B, 6.44 ± 2.38 ng/ml). Our results suggest that crib-biting is a coping strategy that helps stereotypic individuals to reduce cortisol levels caused by stressful situations. We conclude that preventing stereotypic horses from crib-biting could be an inappropriate strategy to control this abnormal behavior, as it prevents individuals from coping with situations that they perceive as stressful.PostprintPeer reviewe

The Effects of Predictability on Stereotypic Behavior in Nonclinical Adult Humans (Homo sapiens) and Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Stereotypies, or repetitive and purposeless behaviors, are observed in both humans and other animals. They have been primarily studied in captive animal and clinical human populations with comparably little research devoted to understanding less severe levels of stereotypies observed in nonclinical populations of adult humans and in most captive animals. As these behaviors are sometimes associated with routine events, I explored the relationship between the predictability of anticipated events and mild stereotypies. I studied this relationship in captive rhesus macaques and a novel comparison group of adult humans from a nonclinical population. I designed two experimental paradigms, a wait paradigm and a task paradigm, to elicit stereotypic behavior in both species. I also provided participants with questionnaires about their current emotional state and individual trait differences. I found that while my manipulations of predictability did not spur differences in stereotypic behavior, both monkeys and humans performed stereotypic behavior in both the wait and task paradigms. Humans performed similar amounts of stereotypic behavior between the two paradigms and individual amounts of stereotypic behavior were positively correlated between paradigms. Yet, the rhesus macaques performed significantly more behaviors during the wait paradigm than in the task paradigm and their stereotypic behaviors between paradigms were not positively correlated, which suggests that they responded differently to the two scenarios. I then compared monkey and human stereotypic behavior during the wait paradigm that was a 5-minute uninterrupted period for both species. The human participants performed significantly more stereotypic behavior than the captive rhesus macaques—a highly unexpected result given that there has been little research devoted to stereotypies in nonclinical adult humans. One reason for this difference may be differences in typical stimulation levels between species as participants who reported feeling more bored performed more stereotypies. My results suggest that while stereotypies in captive animals are typically considered abnormal pathological behaviors that warrant intervention and mitigation, they may serve a function in response to the current environment that is retained across two species of primates. As intervention and mitigation are typically not proposed for mild levels of stereotypic behavior in nonclinical populations of humans, the results in this dissertation suggest that captive animal managers may need to reexamine management strategies for captive animals that perform mild levels of stereotypic behavior

MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE EXPOSURE AT EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE INCREASES APOPTOSIS AND STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOR RISKS ON ZEBRAFISH (DANIO RERIO) LARVAE

Excessive glutamate may give neurotoxic effects and contribute to Autism spectrum disorder(ASD). In this study, we investigated prolonged exposure effects of 10 µg/mL Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) on intracellular calcium level, bax, bcl-2, ratio of bax/bcl-2 genes expression, caspase-3, apoptosis of brain cells and stereotypic behavior of Zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae at early developmental stages. Genes expression were determined by real time PCR, caspase-3 using ELISA, intracellular Ca2+ and apoptotic cells of brain using confocal microscopy, locomotor activity by using crossing lines assay whereas stereotypic behavior by circle swimming. The results indicated that MSG exposure increased brain bax and bcl-2; and caspase-3; intracellular Ca2+; and apoptosis; stereotypic behavior; and decreased locomotor activity. Termination of MSG treatments resulted in recovery of bax, bcl-2, caspase-3 basal levels and stereotypic behavior. In conclusion, MSG exposure at early embryonic stage increased brain cell damage and risk of behavior changes

130— Reducing Stereotypic Behavior with a Ketogenic Diet

Now a popular fad diet, the ketogenic diet (KD) is a high-fat, low-carb diet that for decades has been used for treatment of intractable epilepsy. Recent therapeutic applications of KD in animal models include treatment of dementia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and autism. These disorders are associated with stereotypic behaviors (repetitive, invariant behaviors with no apparent function) that are life-impairing and stigmatizing. However, little is known about their underlying mechanisms and no effective pharmacological treatments are available. Here, we present a novel application of KD to reduce stereotypic behavior in an inbred strain of mice (FVBN/J) that displays a prominent repetitive circling behavior. In Experiment 1, we reduced overall stereotypic behavior in aged (18 months) mice with 3-week administration of KD. In Experiment 2, adult (6-8 months) females were paired such that a “spinner” mouse and a non-spinning control mouse were housed together (N=14 cages). Using an ABAB design, we compared stereotypic behavior between assessment periods on normal food diet and on KD. These data show an interaction between time and diet on stereotypic behavior. Following Golgi-Cox histochemistry, the density of dendritic spines in the dorsal and ventral striatum were investigated as one potential neurobiological mechanism for these effects

Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Stereotypic Behavior in Mice

Stereotypic behaviors are repetitive, invariant, and purposeless actions resulting from central nervous system dysfunction. As one of the diagnostic criteria for autism, stereotypic mice have been used as a model for investigating mechanisms underlying autism. The ketogenic diet (keto diet) is a high fat, low carbohydrate diet that changes the body’s main source of energy from glucose to ketones. It has numerous beneficial effects, including reducing self-directed repetitive behavior and increasing sociability. In this study, aged mice were fed a keto diet for seven weeks to assess its effects on stereotypic behavior and sociability. Home cage observations for stereotypic behaviors and a three-chamber social assay were used to evaluate behavior before and after administration of the keto diet. Brains were processed for immunohistochemistry of Delta-FosB, a transcription factor produced from chronic activation of striatal neurons. The keto diet decreased stereotypy across the test period, however, social behavior did not change significantly. Immunohistochemistry of ∆FosB in the nucleus accumbens was inconclusive and warrants further investigation

When not thinking leads to being and doing: Stereotype suppression and the self

Suppressing stereotypes often results in more stereotype use, an effect attributed to heightened stereotype activation. The authors report two experiments examining the consequences of suppression on two self-relevant outcomes: the active self-concept and overt behavior. Participants who suppressed stereotypes incorporated stereotypic traits into their self-concepts and demonstrated stereotype-congruent behavior compared to those who were exposed to the same stereotypes but did not suppress them. These findings address issues emerging from current theories of suppression, priming, and the active self

Treatment Analysis of a Captive Male Jaguar (Panthera onca)

Large carnivores in human care have been reported to engage in stereotypic behaviors. Such behavior is thought to be correlated with high stress levels, in part, due to captive environments limiting opportunities for functional consequences and environmental stimuli. Moreover, there are several arguments stating that stereotypic behaviors can be indicative of poor welfare, as they can often have severe negative emotional and physical effects on the animal. The first portion of this study included a five-phase treatment analysis which evaluated whether environmental manipulations decrease the frequency of stereotypic behaviors including pacing, over-grooming and tail-sucking exhibited by a single male jaguar housed at Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens. The aim of the present study was to evaluate possible environmental variables that were reported by staff as likely variables maintaining or promoting stereotypic behavior. Data collection occurred during a 10-week evaluation and followed an ABCAD reversal design. Both behavioral data and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were analyzed. The second portion of this analysis included a multi-institutional survey to assess the prevalence of the stereotypic behaviors exhibited by zoo-housed jaguars in North American AZA-accredited institutions. Results from the behavioral assessment revealed a decrease in stereotypic behaviors with the implementation of treatment conditions. Hormone analyses revealed that stereotypic pacing is not presently correlated with higher stress levels for this animal. Finally, survey results revealed that a significant portion of the North American jaguar population engages in stereotypic behaviors. Further analyses are necessary to identify potential patterns or environmental predictors for the development of stereotypic behaviors