Activated cluster for the contrast ergometry sweat odor > TSST sweat odor (Fig. 3a).

<p>The contrast is displayed for the comparison of patients with PD and healthy controls (K≥10, p<.05). Patients showed more activation in the left cingulate cortex than healthy controls. Activated cluster for the contrast TSST sweat odor > ergometry sweat odor (Fig. 3b). Patients showed more activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus than healthy controls. The activated clusters were significantly positive correlated with the severity of psychopathology on the PAS <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Bandelow1" target="_blank">[41]</a>. For visualization, we used a normalized template, provided by SPM 5- Software (single_subj_T1.nii).</p

Intensity and hedonic ratings.

<p>Displayed are mean values and one-sided standard deviations for artificial odors (peach, artificial sweat) and own body odors (TSST sweat, ergometry sweat) in patients with PD and healthy controls. Intensity Ratings: 0 (no odor) − 10 (very strong intensity); Hedonic rating: −5 (very unpleasant) − +5 (very pleasant). ***p ≤.001, **p ≤.01</p

Characteristics of patients with Panic Disorder (PD) (N = 13) and healthy controls (N = 13). Displayed are the means and standard deviations (S.D.) or percentages.

***<p>p<.001, **p<.01; *p<.05; † Chi-square test; U =  Mann-Whitney U-Test; ACQ  =  Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Chambless1" target="_blank">[42]</a>; BDI  =  Beck-Depression-Inventory <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Hautzinger1" target="_blank">[39]</a>; BSQ  =  Body Sensations Questionnaire <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Chambless1" target="_blank">[42]</a>; ergo  =  ergometry; GSI  =  General-Symptom-Index <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Franke1" target="_blank">[40]</a>; MI  =  Mobility Inventory <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Chambless2" target="_blank">[43]</a>; PAS  =  Panic and Agoraphobia- Scale <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Bandelow1" target="_blank">[41]</a>; SCL  =  Symptom Check List <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Franke1" target="_blank">[40]</a>; STAI  =  State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Laux1" target="_blank">[44]</a>.</p

Relative increases in brain activity under the presentation of own body odors.

<p>Brain activation for the contrast own body odors > no odor for the pooled odors TSST sweat and ergometry sweat for patients with PD (N = 13), controls (N = 13) and for patients > controls/controls > patients. Whole brain analyses are corrected at cluster level and uncorrected at a height threshold of p<.001.</p><p>All activations are significant at p<.05, corrected for multiple comparisons at the cluster level (with a height threshold of p<.001, uncorrected).</p><p>1 = p<.05 in a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analysis. Brain masks were created using WFU PickAtlas. 2 = p<.05 in a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analysis according to the coordinates reported by Wittmann et al. <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Wittmann1" target="_blank">[30]</a> for the inferior frontal gyrus [45 30 −15].</p><p># indicates that this activation maximum is part of the same cluster.</p><p>For each region of activation, the coordinates of the maximally activated voxels within the activation cluster are given in standard stereotactic MNI space.</p

increases in brain activity under the presentation of artificial odors.

<p>Brain activation for the contrast artificial odors > no odor for the pooled odors peach and artificial sweat for patients with PD (N = 13), controls (N = 13) and for patients > controls/controls > patients. Whole brain analyses are corrected at cluster level and uncorrected at a height threshold of p<.001.</p><p>All activations are significant at p<.05, corrected for multiple comparisons at the cluster level (with a height threshold of p<.001, uncorrected). 1 = p<.05 in a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analysis. Brain masks were created using WFU PickAtlas. 2 = p<.05 in a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analysis according to the coordinates reported by by Pillay et al. <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Pillay1" target="_blank">[25]</a> for the anterior cingulate cortex [−2 16 −4].</p><p># indicates that this activation maximum is part of the same cluster.</p><p>For each region of activation, the coordinates of the maximally activated voxels within the activation cluster are given in standard stereotactic MNI space.</p

Activated clusters for the contrast artificial odors (peach, artificial sweat) > no odor.

<p>The contrast is displayed for the healthy controls compared to patients with PD (K≥10, p<.05). For visualization a normalized template provided by SPM5-Software (single_subj_T1.nii) was used. *p<.05 in a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analysis according to the coordinates reported by Pillay et al. <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0074655#pone.0074655-Pillay1" target="_blank">[25]</a> for the anterior cingulate cortex [−2 16 −4].</p

Effects of Physical Activity Training in Patients with Alzheimer’s Dementia: Results of a Pilot RCT Study

<div><p>Background</p><p>There is evidence that physical activity (PA) is of cognitive benefit to the ageing brain, but little is known on the effect in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The present pilot study assessed the effect of a home-based PA training on clinical symptoms, functional abilities, and caregiver burden after 12 and 24 weeks.</p><p>Methods</p><p>In an RCT thirty patients (aged 72.4±4.3 years) with AD (MMSE: 20.6±6.5 points) and their family caregivers were allocated to a home-based 12-week PA intervention program or the usual care group. The program changed between passive, motor-assisted or active resistive leg training and changes in direction on a movement trainer in order to combine physical and cognitive stimuli.</p><p>Results</p><p>Analysis of activities of daily living in the patients (ADCS ADL total score) revealed a significant group × time interaction effect (95% CI of the difference between both groups at T2: 5.01–10.51). The control group experienced decreases in ADL performance at week 12 and 24 whereas patients in the intervention group remained stable. Analyses of executive function and language ability revealed considerable effects for semantic word fluency with a group × time interaction (95% CI of the difference between both groups at T2: 0.18–4.02). Patients in the intervention group improved during the intervention and returned to initial performance at week 12 whereas the controls revealed continuous worsening. Analyses of reaction time, hand-eye quickness and attention revealed improvement only in the intervention group. Caregiver burden remained stable in the intervention group but worsened in the control group.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>This study suggests that PA in a home-based setting might be an effective and intrinsically attractive way to promote PA training in AD and modulate caregiver burden. The results demonstrate transfer benefits to ADL, cognitive and physical skill in patients with AD.</p><p>Trial Registration</p><p>ClinicalTrials.gov <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02196545" target="_blank">NCT02196545</a></p></div

Model predicted means and their differences.

<p>Model predicted means and their differences.</p

Consort Flow Chart.

<p>Consort Flow Chart.</p

a-e. Effects of physical activity on clinical performance.

<p>This figure shows the effects of physical activity on the patients when compared to the control group for the three time points (T0- baseline, T1–3 months later or after completion of the intervention and T2- 3 month follow-up). Activities of daily living (ADCS ADL total scores): patients in the control group experienced significant decreases in their performance over 12 weeks and at the 3 month follow-up whereas patients in the intervention group remained stable during the study period and follow-up (Fig 2a). Neuropsychiatric symptom profiles (NPI total scores): controls suffered a considerable increase in behavioural changes over 24 weeks whereas patients in the intervention group remained stable over 24 weeks (Fig 2b). Executive function and language ability: patients in the intervention group improved during the intervention period and returned to initial performance after completion but without revealing the continuous worsening over 24 weeks demonstrated in the controls (Fig 2c). Reaction time, hand-eye quickness and attention (FETZ-test or Ruler Drop Test): only patients in the intervention group improved their performance during the study period (Fig 2d). Caregiver burden (NPI): burden increased in the control group during the first 3 months whereas caregiver burden remained stable in the intervention group during the study period (Fig 2e).</p