Fully Automated Dynamic In-Syringe Liquid-Phase Microextraction and On-Column Derivatization of Carbamate Pesticides with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometric Analysis

A new fully automated dynamic in-syringe liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) and on-column derivatization approach, with gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) analysis, was developed to determine carbamate pesticides from water samples. With the use of a CTC CombiPal autosampler and its associated Cycle Composer software, a sample preparation-GC/MS method was enabled that allowed sample extraction, extract injection, and analyte derivatization to be carried out completely automatically. Optimization of extraction parameters was carried out by orthogonal array design which required a minimum of 16 experiments; the entire set of experiments was performed completely automatically and consecutively without any human intervention. Low limits of detection ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 μg/L were achieved for the carbamates. Effective enrichment of the analytes at a low concentration of 0.01 mg/L was also achieved (enrichment factors of between 57 and 138). The precision of the optimized method was satisfactory, with relative standard deviations of n = 6). High relative recoveries of between 81 and 125% were obtained when the method was applied to the analysis of real water samples, indicating that the sample matrix had little effect on the developed method. This automated dynamic in-syringe LPME approach demonstrated the feasibility of a complete analytical system comprising sample preparation and GC/MS that might be operated onsite, fully automatically without human intervention

Large-Volume Sample Stacking in Acidic Buffer for Analysis of Small Organic and Inorganic Anions by Capillary Electrophoresis

This paper describes a straightforward approach for stacking extremely large volumes of sample solutions containing small organic and inorganic anions in capillary electrophoresis. The methodology involves the stacking of large sample volumes and the separation of the stacked anions in an acidic buffer (pH <4) without intermediate polarity switching. More than 300-fold enrichment was readily attained in a few minutes in the stacking of two similar organic (maleic and fumaric acids) and two inorganic (bromide and nitrate) anions. The applicability of the technique was tested in the determination of trace amounts of nitrate anion (analyte-to-matrix ratio being 1:2 × 104 and 1:2.5 × 106) in analytical-grade potassium bromide and boric acid

Application of Dissolvable Layered Double Hydroxides As Sorbent in Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction and Extraction by Co-Precipitation for the Determination of Aromatic Acid Anions

Three types of magnesium–aluminum layered double hydroxides were synthesized and employed as solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents to extract several aromatic acids (protocatechuic acid, mandelic acid, phthalic acid, benzoic acid, and salicylic acid) from aqueous samples. An interesting feature of these sorbents is that they dissolve when the pH of the solution is lower than 4. Thus, the analyte elution step, as needed in conventional sorbent-based extraction, was obviated by dissolving the sorbent in acid after extraction and separation from the sample solution. The extract was then directly injected into a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection system for analysis. In the key adsorption process, both dispersive SPE and co-precipitation extraction with the sorbents were conducted and experimental parameters such as pH, temperature, and extraction time were optimized. The results showed that both extraction methods provided low limits of detection (0.03–1.47 μg/L) and good linearity (<i>r</i>² > 0.9903). The optimized extraction conditions were applied to human urine and sports drink samples. This new and interesting extraction approach was demonstrated to be a fast and efficient procedure for the extraction of organic anions from aqueous samples

Automated Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

An innovative automated procedure, low-density solvent based/solvent demulsification dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (automated DLLME) coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis, has been developed. The most significant innovation of the method is the automation. The entire procedure, including the extraction of the model analytes (phthalate esters) by DLLME from the aqueous sample solution, breaking up of the emulsion after extraction, collection of the extract, and analysis of the extract by GC/MS, was completely automated. The applications of low-density solvent as extraction solvent and the solvent demulsification technique to break up the emulsion simplified the procedure and facilitated its automation. Orthogonal array design (OAD) as an efficient optimization strategy was employed to optimize the extraction parameters, with all the experiments conducted auotmatically. An OA₁₆ (4¹ × 2¹²) matrix was initially employed for the identification of optimized extraction parameters (type and volume of extraction solvent, type and volume of dispersive solvent and demulsification solvent, demulsification time, and injection speed). Then, on the basis of the results, more levels (values) of five extraction parameters were investigated by an OA₁₆ (4⁵) matrix and quantitatively assessed by the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Enrichment factors of between 178- and 272-fold were obtained for the phthalate esters. The linearities were in the range of 0.1 and 50 μg/L and 0.2 and 50 μg/L, depending on the analytes. Good limits of detection (in the range of 0.01 to 0.02 μg/L) and satisfactory repeatability (relative standard deviations of below 5.9%) were obtained. The proposed method demonstrates for the first time integrated sample preparation by DLLME and analysis by GC/MS that can be operated automatically across multiple experiments

Fully Automated Headspace Bubble-in-Drop Microextraction

A fully automated headspace bubble-in-drop microextraction (automated HS-BID) method, coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) analysis, was developed for the analysis of nitro musks in environmental water samples. The entire procedure, including the extraction of the analytes by HS-BID and GC/MS analysis of the analyte-enriched solvent, was completely automated. In BID, a certain volume of air is introduced into the extraction solvent droplet, enlarging the surface area of the extraction solvent droplet in relation to the water sample without increasing its volume, significantly enhancing extraction efficiency. Compared to conventional single drop microextraction, the developed method has higher extraction efficiency due to the enlarged surface area of the extraction solvent droplet. Under the optimized conditions (1.0 mL of sample solution, using 1.0 μL of 1-octanol containing of 0.5 μL of air bubble, at 40 °C for extraction for 20 min), the automated HS-BID gave low limits of detections (between 0.012 and 0.042 μg/L), good linearity (from 0.1 to 20 μg/L and from 0.2 to 50 μg/L, with r2 between 0.9909 and 0.9958, depending on analytes), and good repeatability of the extractions (relative standard deviations, below 4.7%, n = 5). The developed procedure was applied to determine nitro musks in environmental water samples and was demonstrated to be efficient, labor-free, economical, and environmentally benign

Chemometric Analytical Approach for the Cloud Point Extraction and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometric Determination of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in Water Samples

Cloud point extraction (CPE) with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) was applied to the analysis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs, mean diameter ∼40 nm) in water and wastewater samples. Five CPE factors, surfactant (Triton X-114 (TX-114)) concentration, pH, ionic strength, incubation temperature, and incubation time, were investigated and optimized by orthogonal array design (OAD). A three-level OAD, OA₂₇ (3¹³) matrix was employed in which the effects of the factors and their contributions to the extraction efficiency were quantitatively assessed by the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Based on the analysis, the best extraction efficiency (87.3%) was obtained at 0.25% (w/v) of TX-114, pH = 10, salt content of 15 mM NaCl, incubation temperature of 45 °C, and incubation time of 30 min. The results showed that surfactant concentration, pH, incubation time, and ionic strength exert significant effects on the extraction efficiency. Preconcentration factors of 62 and 220 were obtained with 0.25 and 0.05% (w/v) TX-114, respectively. The relative recoveries of ZnO NPs from different environmental waters were in the range 64–123% at 0.5–100 μg/L spiked levels. The ZnO NPs extracted into the TX-114-rich phase were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and UV–visible spectrometry. Based on the results, no significant changes in size and shape of NPs were observed compared to those in the water before extraction. The extracted ZnO NPs were determined after microwave digestion by ICPMS. A detection limit of 0.05 μg/L was achieved for ZnO NPs. The optimized conditions were successfully applied to the analysis of ZnO NPs in water samples

Automated Agitation-Assisted Demulsification Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction

Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) is an extremely fast and efficient sample preparation procedure. For its capability and applicability to be fully exploited, full automation of its operations seamlessly integrated with analysis is necessary. In this work, for the first time, fully automated agitation-assisted demulsification (AAD)-DLLME integrated with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was developed for the convenient and efficient determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental water samples. The use of a commercially available multipurpose autosampler equipped with two microsyringes of different capacities allowed elimination or significant reduction of manpower, labor, and time with the large-volume microsyringe used for liquid transfers and the small-volume microsyringe for extract collection and injection for analysis. Apart from enhancing accessibility of DLLME, the procedure was characterized by the application of agitation after extraction to break up the emulsion (that otherwise would need centrifugation or a demulsification solvent), further improving overall operational efficiency and flexibility. Additionally, the application of low-density solvent as extractant facilitated the easy collection of extract as the upper layer over water. Some parameters affecting the automated AAD-DDLME procedure were investigated. Under the optimized conditions, the procedure provided good linearity (ranging from a minimum of 0.1–0.5 μg/L to a maximum of 50 μg/L), low limits of detection (0.010–0.058 μg/L), and good repeatability of the extractions (relative standard deviations, below 5.3%, <i>n</i> = 6). The proposed method was applied to analyze PAHs in real river water samples

Miniscale Liquid–Liquid Extraction Coupled with Full Evaporation Dynamic Headspace Extraction for the Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons with 4000-to-14 000-fold Enrichment

A new sample preparation approach of combining a miniscale version of liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), termed miniscale-LLE (msLLE), with automated full evaporation dynamic headspace extraction (FEDHS) was developed. Its applicability was demonstrated in the extraction of several polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene) from aqueous samples. In the first step, msLLE was conducted with 1.75 mL of n-hexane, and all of the extract was vaporized through a Tenax TA sorbent tube via a nitrogen gas flow, in the FEDHS step. Due to the stronger π–π interaction between the Tenax TA polymer and PAHs, only the latter, and not n-hexane, was adsorbed by the sorbent. This selectivity by the Tenax TA polymer allowed an effective concentration of PAHs while eliminating n-hexane by the FEDHS process. After that, thermal desorption was applied to the PAHs to channel them into a gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) system for analysis. Experimental parameters affecting msLLE (solvent volume and mixing duration) and FEDHS (temperature and duration) were optimized. The obtained results achieved low limits of detection (1.85–3.63 ng/L) with good linearity (r2 > 0.9989) and high enrichment factors ranging from 4200 to 14 100. The optimized settings were applied to the analysis of canal water sampled from an industrial area and tap water, and this methodology was compared to stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). This innovative combined extraction–concentration approach proved to be fast, effective, and efficient in determining low concentrations of PAHs in aqueous samples

Application of Dynamic Liquid-Phase Microextraction to the Analysis of Chlorobenzenes in Water by Using a Conventional Microsyringe

A dynamic liquid-phase microextraction technique combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is described for the extraction of 10 chlorobenzenes from water samples into 1 μL of organic solvent by using a conventional microsyringe. The effects of extraction solvent, plunger movement pattern, sampling volume, number of samplings, and salt concentration on the extraction performance were investigated. Good repeatabilities of extraction were obtained, with the RSD values below 5.3% except for hexachlorobenzene (9.3%). By using a sampling volume of 6 μL and 15 samplings, detection limits were found to be between 0.02 and 0.05 μg/L under GC/MS-selective ion monitoring mode