Does farm level diversification improve household dietary diversity? Evidence from Rural India

Using data from a nationally representative survey of farm households in India we identify a causal link between dietary-diversity and farm level diversification. Propensity score matching techniques show that households which exclusively grow cereals (our treatment-group) consume significantly less diverse diet compared to those who grow both cereals and other crop-groups (our control-group). Various matching rules have been used to check for robustness of our results

Indian Agricultural Growth- A Spatial Perspective

In this paper, we study the role of relative spatial location of states on agricultural growth in India. We use different definitions of neighbourhood and through a Spatial Durbin Model in a dynamic panel framework, we find that district based weighing scheme best explains the spatial dependence. The channels through which spatial spill-over occur are rural literacy, roads, irrigation and income of neighbouring states. The other factors driving agricultural income growth in India are inputs, infrastructural support and agricultural diversification. Identification of these channels of spatial interdependence will have implications for policies aimed at reducing spatial differences across Indian states

Neighborhood and agricultural clusters across states of India

In this study we trace how number and members of income clusters have changed in Indian agriculture over the last four and a half decades. Two features which stand out in our results are that not all geographical neighbors belong to the same cluster and clusters include both geographical neighbors and non-neighbors. To identify the factors driving a pair of states to common cluster we then use a logit model and find that smaller is the relative difference between them in terms of mechanization, infrastructural support, deviations from normal rainfall and price differences, higher are the chances that they will be in the same income cluster. Between contiguous and non-contiguous state pairs we find that apart from the common factors, smaller relative differences in irrigation support, rainfall and price differences additionally brings non-contiguous states together

Shear-Dependent Interactions in Hydrophobically Modified Ethylene Oxide Urethane (HEUR) Based Rheology Modifier–Latex Suspensions: Part 1. Molecular Microstructure

We have studied the microstructure of latex suspensions formulated with hydrophobically modified ethylene (oxide) urethane (HEUR) thickener (or rheology modifier, RM) using small-angle neutron scattering under shear (rheo-SANS). Within the shear rate range studied (0–1000 s^–1), the neutron scattering profiles are consistent with a polydisperse core–shell model, with the latex particles comprising the core and an adsorbed layer of water-swollen RM on the latex surface forming the shell. The core–shell structure is isotropic under quiescent conditions but becomes anisotropic under shear (with the major axis along the vorticity direction). During shear, the solvent (D₂O/H₂O) is expelled (hydrodynamic squeezing) from the swollen polymer chains, and the shell structure becomes denser. The <i>anisotropic</i> shell is a result of differing degrees of compression along the flow and vorticity directions. With increasing shear rate, the shell thickness (in both the flow and vorticity direction) tends toward asymptotic values (with the shell thickness in the vorticity direction greater than the shell thickness in the flow direction) independent of the RM hydrophobe density (defined as the average number of hydrophobes per polymer chain). The RM concentration (w/w) in the adsorbed layer varies from ∼0.05–0.1 (at low shear) to ∼0.25–0.4 (high shear, ∼1000 s^–1) with higher values for the RM polymer with higher hydrophobe density. The swollen RM-water shell substantially increases the effective volume fraction of the dispersed latex particles. We find, however, that accounting for this increase within the conventional effective hard-sphere (Krieger–Dougherty) dispersion rheology model does not fully explain the higher viscosity of the formulated mixture. We hypothesize the existence of latex–latex interactions mediated by RM polymer bridges even at high shear. The large-scale structure of the particle assembly will be reported in a subsequent manuscript

Formulation-Controlled Positive and Negative First Normal Stress Differences in Waterborne Hydrophobically Modified Ethylene Oxide Urethane (HEUR)-Latex Suspensions

Hydrophobically modified ethylene oxide urethane (HEUR) associative thickeners are widely used to modify the rheology of waterborne paints. Understanding the normal stress behavior of the HEUR-based paints under high shear is critical for many applications such as brush drag and spreading. We observed that the first normal stress difference, <i>N</i>₁, at high shear (large Weissenberg number) can be positive or negative depending on the HEUR hydrophobe strength and concentration. We propose that the algebraic sign of the <i>N</i>₁ is primarily controlled by two factors: (a) adsorption of HEURs on the latex surface and (b) the ability of HEURs to form transient molecular bridges between latex particles. Such transient bridges are favored for dispersions with small interparticle distances and dense surface coverages; in these systems; HEUR-bridged latex microstructures flow-align in high shear and exhibit positive <i>N</i>₁. In the absence of transient bridges (large interparticle distances, low surface coverage), the dispersion rheology is similar to that of weakly interacting spheres, exhibiting negative <i>N</i>₁. The results are summarized in a simplified phase diagram connecting formulation, microstructure, and the <i>N</i>₁ behavior

Shear-Dependent Interactions in Hydrophobically Modified Ethylene Oxide Urethane (HEUR) Based Coatings: Mesoscale Structure and Viscosity

We have investigated the in situ mesoscale structure of paint formulations under shear using ultra small-angle neutron scattering (rheo-USANS). Contrast match conditions were utilized to independently probe the latex binder particle aggregates and the TiO₂ pigment particle aggregates. Two different latex chemistries and two different hydrophobically modified ethylene oxide urethane (HEUR) rheology modifiers were studied. The rheo-USANS data reveal that both the latex particles and the TiO₂ particles form transient aggregates which are fractal in nature. The structures depend on the chemistry of the binder particles, the type of rheology modifier present and the shear stress imposed upon the formulation. The aggregate size of both the latex and pigment generally decreases with increasing shear stress. In two of the formulations studied, the latex and TiO₂ correlation lengths remain large even at high shear stress and are characteristic of TiO₂ crowding. In a third formulation, shear induces string-like aggregate structures of TiO₂, and a further increase in shear leads to pigment particles becoming more uniformly dispersed. The changes in the latex and pigment transient aggregate structures correlate with the changes observed in their viscosity flow curve profiles. We have used this correlation to develop an elementary viscosity prediction model based on the structural parameters extracted from the rheo-USANS data. Using a single fitting parameter and only the latex transient fractal aggregate structural parameters, good agreement between the measured and calculated viscosity is obtained. This implies that the structural parameters extracted from the scattering data are representative of the colloidal structure under shear and that energy dissipation from transient fractal aggregates of latex is the predominant mechanism of viscosity creation in HEUR thickened latex paints