Additional file 1: of Buformin inhibits the stemness of erbB-2-overexpressing breast cancer cells and premalignant mammary tissues of MMTV-erbB-2 transgenic mice

Buformin does not upregulate AMPK activation in MMTV-erbB-2 mice. Representative images of p-AMPK immunostained mammary tissues from 18-week-old MMTV-erbB-2 mice that were fed control or buformin diets for 10 weeks are shown. (TIF 789 kb

Types and amounts of starches and phytolith on milling stones from the Xincun Site.

a)<p>Stone tools 1–5, 9–11 from ancient living surface (ASL) 1; 6 &12 from ASL2; and 7 & 8 from ASL5, slightly earlier than 3,350-3,080a BC (BA090575).</p>b)<p>Starch types. a, palms; b, banana (<i>Musa</i> sp.); c, lotus (cf. <i>Nelumbo nucifera</i>); d, Chinese arrowhead (<i>Sagittaria</i> sp.); e, water chestnut (cf. <i>Eleocharis dulcis</i>); f, fern (<i>Angiopteris</i> sp.); g, Job's-tear (<i>Coix</i> spp); h, acorn (<i>Quercus</i> sp.); i, starch granules damaged and/or unidentifiable.</p>c)<p>Phytolith types.</p><p>j, globular echinate type from palms; k, polygonal cone from sedge; l, elongate of triangular prism from fern; m, sum of bulliform, two-peak glume and bilobate from <i>Oryza</i>; n, bulliform echinate and long saddle types from bamboo; o, broadleaved-tree phytolith; p, reed bulliform; q, sum of other types including conifer-tree phytolith, rondel from other grasses, etc. The detailed data showed in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0063148#pone-0063148-g007" target="_blank">Figure 7</a>. r, unidentifiable phytoliths.</p

Stone tools examined for starch residues (1#–8#) and phytoliths (9#–12#).

<p>White dots and arrows indicate sampling locations. Scale bar: 5 cm. 1-<i>n</i> indicate sample numbers used in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0063148#pone-0063148-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>.</p

Characteristic starch granules from modern plants.

<p>a, <i>Caryota mitis</i>, range, 3.3–10.7 µm; b, <i>Caryota urens</i>, range, 6.6–45.7 µm; c, <i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>, range, 11.4–48.7 µm; d, <i>Arenga undulatifolia</i>, range, 3.0–17.8 µm; e–f, <i>Musa acuminata</i>, under brightfield and polarized light, range, 6.2–41.3 µm; g, <i>Nelumbo nucifera</i> (root), range, 8.0–72.4 µm; h, <i>Sagittaria trifolia</i>, range, 9.7–27.6 µm; i, <i>Eleocharis dulcis</i>, range, 4.7–18.7 µm; j–k, compound starch grains from <i>Angiopteris yunnanensis</i> under brightfield and polarized light, respectively, range, 9.3–149.4 µm; l, <i>Coix lacryma-jobi</i>, range, 5.4–20.4 µm. Scale bar, 20 µm except a and c, 10 µm.</p

Some phytolith types extracted from tools 9#–12#.

<p>a and b, globular echinate (or ‘spherical crenate’) from Aracaceae; e, scale decorated bulliform from <i>Oryza</i>; f, glume with two peaks from <i>Oryza</i>. Scale bar, 20 µm.</p

The Xincun Site on the southern coast of China.

<p>Location of the study region (A), the site is indicated by the red triangle (B), and geomorphological features of the Xincun site (C). Red grids mark excavation area (AI-III), stippling shows coastal sand dunes.</p

Percentage diagram for selected phytolith types from surface residues of stone tools 9#–12#: A and B indicate the used facet and non-used facet, respectively.

<p>Percentage diagram for selected phytolith types from surface residues of stone tools 9#–12#: A and B indicate the used facet and non-used facet, respectively.</p

AMS radiocarbon dates from occupation layers, Xincun site.

<p>Note:</p>§<p>ALS is Ancient Living Surface. Half life of carbon is 5568 and BP is before 1950. Tree ring curve for calibaration is IntCalo4(1), and progremee for calibartion is OxCal v3.10(2).</p><p>• Reimer PJ, MGL Baillie, E Bard, A Bayliss, JW Beck, C Bertrand, PG Blackwell, CE Buck, G Burr, KB Cutler, PE Damon, RL Edwards, RG Fairbanks, M Friedrich, TP Guilderson, KA Hughen, B Kromer, FG McCormac, S Manning, C Bronk Ramsey, RW Reimer, S Remmels, JR Southon, M Stuivers, S Talamo, FW Taylor, J van der Plicht, and CE Weyhenmeyer. 2004 <i>Radiocarbon</i> 46:1029–1058.</p><p>• Christopher Bronk Ramsey 2005, <a href="http://www.rlaha.ox.ac.uk/orau/oxcal.html" target="_blank">www.rlaha.ox.ac.uk/orau/oxcal.html</a>.</p

Ancient starches recovered from residues on the stone tools.

<p>a, <i>Caryota</i> sp., range, 12.1–25.8 µm; b, <i>Corypha</i> sp., range, 10.6–15.5 µm; c, possibly <i>Arenga</i> sp., 11.0 µm; d–j, starches from <i>Musa</i>; d, e and g, similar to hybrid type, range, 25.1–55.6 µm; f and h, under polarized light. i, cf. <i>M. acuminata</i>, range, 11.7–18.0 µm; j, under polarized light; k, cf. <i>Nelumbo nucifera</i>, range, 28.2–31.8 µm; l, <i>Sagittarria</i> sp., range, 14.2–21.8 µm; m, cf. <i>Eleocharis dulcis</i>, 8.8–12.7 µm; n and o, compound starch grains from <i>Angiopteris</i> spp. under brightfield and polarized light, respectively, range, 12.1–32.4 µm; p, <i>Coix</i> spp., range, 9.4–22.5 µm. Scale bar, 20 µm.</p

Multiple indicators of rice remains and the process of rice domestication: A case study in the lower Yangtze River region, China

The process of rice domestication has been studied for decades based on changing morphological characteristics in assemblages of both macroremains, such as charred seeds and spikelet bases, and microremains, such as phytoliths, esp. bulliform and double-peaked phytoliths. The applicability of these indicators in determining if a specific assemblage is wild or domesticated, however, is rarely discussed. To understand the significance of these indicators in the determination of domestication, we collected 38 archaeological samples from eight Neolithic sites, dating from 10-2ka BP, in the lower Yangtze River region to analyze and compare the changes of these different indicators over eight thousand years. The data demonstrate that the comprehensive analysis of multiple indicators may be the best method to study the process of rice domestication developed thus far. An assemblage of rice remains can be identified as domesticated forms if they meet the following criteria simultaneously: 1) the proportion of domesticated-type bulliform phytoliths is more than 73%; and 2) the proportion of domesticated-type rice spikelet bases is higher than 75%. Furthermore, we found that each indicator tends to change steadily and gradually over time, and each stabilized at a different time, suggesting that the characteristics of domesticated rice developed slowly and successively. Changes of multiple indicators during the period between 10,000–2,000 yr BP indicate that the process of rice domestication in the lower Yangtze River region lasted as long as ca. 6,000 years during the Neolithic, and can be divided into three stages with the turning points in the middle Hemudu-late Majiabang culture (6,500–5,800yr BP) and the late Liangzhu culture (4,600–4,300yr BP)