Five new species of the giant pill-millipedes of the genera <i>Zephronia</i> and <i>Sphaerobelum</i>, from China (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida: Zephroniidae)

Five new species of giant pill-millipedes in the family Zephroniidae are described and illustrated from China: Zephronia medogensis Zhao & Liu n. sp., Z. zhouae Zhao & Liu n. sp., Z. hui Liu & Wesener n. sp., Sphaerobelum benqii Liu & Wesener n. sp. and S. tujiaphilum Zhao & Liu n. sp. COI sequences of these five new species are given and deposited in GenBank. Additionally, a study of the genetic distance and a molecular maximum likelihood analysis were conducted based on DNA barcoding data of most SE Asian Sphaerotheriida species.</p

Convergent Evolution of Unique Morphological Adaptations to a Subterranean Environment in Cave Millipedes (Diplopoda)

<div><p>Animal life in caves has fascinated researchers and the public alike because of the unusual and sometimes bizarre morphological adaptations observed in numerous troglobitic species. Despite their worldwide diversity, the adaptations of cave millipedes (Diplopoda) to a troglobitic lifestyle have rarely been examined. In this study, morphological characters were analyzed in species belonging to four different orders (Glomerida, Polydesmida, Chordeumatida, and Spirostreptida) and six different families (Glomeridae, Paradoxosomatidae, Polydesmidae, Haplodesmidae, Megalotylidae, and Cambalopsidae) that represent the taxonomic diversity of class Diplopoda. We focused on the recently discovered millipede fauna of caves in southern China. Thirty different characters were used to compare cave troglobites and epigean species within the same genera. A character matrix was created to analyze convergent evolution of cave adaptations. Males and females were analyzed independently to examine sex differences in cave adaptations. While 10 characters only occurred in a few phylogenetic groups, 20 characters were scored for in all families. Of these, four characters were discovered to have evolved convergently in all troglobitic millipedes. The characters that represented potential morphological cave adaptations in troglobitic species were: (1) a longer body; (2) a lighter body color; (3) elongation of the femora; and (4) elongation of the tarsi of walking legs. Surprisingly, female, but not male, antennae were more elongated in troglobites than in epigean species. Our study clearly shows that morphological adaptations have evolved convergently in different, unrelated millipede orders and families, most likely as a direct adaptation to cave life.</p></div

Character discussion.

<p>Character discussion.</p

Phylogenetic tree and selected taxa.

<p>Species pairs included in this study are marked in red. Modified from [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0170717#pone.0170717.ref100" target="_blank">100</a>].</p

SEM plate measurements.

<p><b>(A)</b> Antenna of a troglobitic <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp., antenna measurements, C8–C12; <b>(B)</b> Antenna of an epigean <i>Hyleoglomeris</i> sp., C13; <b>(C)</b> Midleg of a troglobitic <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp., midleg measurements, C24–C28; <b>(D)</b> Midleg of an epigean <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp., C29; <b>(E)</b> Mandible of a troglobitic <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp., C16–C17; <b>(F)</b> Mandible of an epigean <i>Hyleoglomeris</i> sp., mandible measurements, C18; <b>(G)</b> Telson of a troglobitic <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp., C30; <b>(H)</b> Head of an epigean <i>Hyleoglomeris</i> sp., number and size of ocelli, C4, C6; Tömösváry organ’s measurements, C7. <b>Abbreviations:</b> A1–A7 = antennomeres 1–7; Cx = coxa; Pre = prefemur; Fem = femur; Post = postfemur; Tib = tibia; Tar = tarsus; s = accessory spine; eT = external tooth; iT = internal tooth; Pl = pectinate lamellae; iA = intermediate area; Mp = molar plate; Pre-a = Pre-anal; TO = Tömösváry organ; O = ocelli.</p

SEM plate of <i>Glyphiulus</i> spp.

<p><b>(A)</b> Head and collum of a troglobitic <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp.; <b>(B)</b> Head and collum of an epigean <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp. <b>Abbreviations:</b> O = ocelli.</p

<i>Epanerchodus</i> sp. (Polydesmidae, Polydesmida).

<p>Morphological characters selected to compare cave and epigean millipede species.</p

Specimens selected and repositories of the vouchers.

<p>Troglobites are marked in bold. Abbreviations for museum repositories: MNHN = Muséum national d’histoire naturelle, Pairs, France; SCAU = South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China; SWUNM = Srinakharinwirot University Natural History Museum, Bangkok, Thailand; ZMUC = Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; ZMUM = Zoological Museum, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.</p

Photographs of troglobitic cave millipedes.

<p><b>(A)</b><i>Hyleoglomeris</i> sp. (Glomeridae, Glomerida); <b>(B)</b> <i>Epanerchodus</i> sp. (Polydesmidae, Polydesmida); <b>(C)</b> <i>Glyphiulus</i> sp. (Cambalopsidae, Spirostreptida); <b>(D)</b> <i>Eutrichodesmus</i> sp. (Haplodesmidae, Polydesmida); <b>(E)</b> <i>Nepalella</i> sp. (Megalotylidae, Chordeumatida); <b>(F)</b> <i>Desmoxytes</i> sp. (Paradoxosomatidae, Polydesmida).</p

Identification of Genes Encoding Granule-Bound Starch Synthase Involved in Amylose Metabolism in Banana Fruit

<div><p>Granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS) is responsible for amylose synthesis, but the role of <i>GBSS</i> genes and their encoded proteins remains poorly understood in banana. In this study, amylose content and GBSS activity gradually increased during development of the banana fruit, and decreased during storage of the mature fruit. GBSS protein in banana starch granules was approximately 55.0 kDa. The protein was up-regulated expression during development while it was down-regulated expression during storage. Six genes, designated as <i>MaGBSSI-1</i>, <i>MaGBSSI-2</i>, <i>MaGBSSI-3</i>, <i>MaGBSSI-4</i>, <i>MaGBSSII-1</i>, and <i>MaGBSSII-2</i>, were cloned and characterized from banana fruit. Among the six genes, the expression pattern of <i>MaGBSSI-3</i> was the most consistent with the changes in amylose content, GBSS enzyme activity, GBSS protein levels, and the quantity or size of starch granules in banana fruit. These results suggest that <i>MaGBSSI-3</i> might regulate amylose metabolism by affecting the variation of GBSS levels and the quantity or size of starch granules in banana fruit during development or storage.</p></div