Phenyl-Ring-Bearing Cationic Surfactants: Effect of Ring Location on the Micellar Structure

A series of isomeric cationic surfactants (S1−S5) bearing a long alkyl chain that carries a 1,4-phenylene unit and a trimethyl ammonium headgroup was synthesized; the location of the phenyl ring within the alkyl tail was varied in an effort to understand its influence on the amphiphilic properties of the surfactants. The cmc’s of the surfactants were estimated using ionic conductivity measurements and isothermal calorimetric titrations (ITC); the values obtained by the two methods were found to be in excellent agreement. The ITC measurements provided additional insight into the various thermodynamic parameters associated with the micellization process. Although all five surfactants have exactly the same molecular formula, their micellar properties were seen to vary dramatically depending on the location of the phenyl ring; the cmc was seen to decrease by almost an order of magnitude when the phenyl ring was moved from the tail end (cmc of S1 is 23 mM) to the headgroup region (cmc of S5 is 3 mM). In all cases, the enthalpy of micellization was negative but the entropy of micellization was positive, suggesting that in all of these systems the formation of micelles is both enthalpically and entropically favored. As expected, the decrease in cmc values upon moving the phenyl ring from the tail end to the headgroup region is accompanied by an increase in the thermodynamic driving force (ΔG) for micellization. To understand further the differences in the micellar structure of these surfactants, small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements were carried out; these measurements reveal that the aggregation number of the micelles increases as the cmc decreases. This increase in the aggregation number is also accompanied by an increase in the asphericity of the micellar aggregate and a decrease in the fractional charge. Geometric packing arguments are presented to account for these changes in aggregation behavior as a function of phenyl ring location

pH-Dependent Interaction and Resultant Structures of Silica Nanoparticles and Lysozyme Protein

Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and UV–visible spectroscopy studies have been carried out to examine pH-dependent interactions and resultant structures of oppositely charged silica nanoparticles and lysozyme protein in aqueous solution. The measurements were carried out at fixed concentration (1 wt %) of three differently sized silica nanoparticles (8, 16, and 26 nm) over a wide concentration range of protein (0–10 wt %) at three different pH values (5, 7, and 9). The adsorption curve as obtained by UV–visible spectroscopy shows exponential behavior of protein adsorption on nanoparticles. The electrostatic interaction enhanced by the decrease in the pH between the nanoparticle and protein (isoelectric point ∼11.4) increases the adsorption coefficient on nanoparticles but decreases the overall amount protein adsorbed whereas the opposite behavior is observed with increasing nanoparticle size. The adsorption of protein leads to the protein-mediated aggregation of nanoparticles. These aggregates are found to be surface fractals at pH 5 and change to mass fractals with increasing pH and/or decreasing nanoparticle size. Two different concentration regimes of interaction of nanoparticles with protein have been observed: (i) unaggregated nanoparticles coexisting with aggregated nanoparticles at low protein concentrations and (ii) free protein coexisting with aggregated nanoparticles at higher protein concentrations. These concentration regimes are found to be strongly dependent on both the pH and nanoparticle size

Small-Angle Neutron Scattering Study of Interplay of Attractive and Repulsive Interactions in Nanoparticle–Polymer System

The phase behavior of nanoparticle (silica)–polymer (polyethylene glycol) system without and with an electrolyte (NaCl) has been studied. It is observed that nanoparticle–polymer system behaves very differently in the presence of electrolyte. In the absence of electrolyte, the nanoparticle–polymer system remains in one-phase even at very high polymer concentrations. On the other hand, a re-entrant phase behavior is found in the presence of electrolyte, where one-phase (individual) system undergoes two-phase (nanoparticle aggregation) and then back to one-phase with increasing polymer concentration. The regime of two-phase system has been tuned by varying the electrolyte concentration. The polymer concentration range over which the two-phase system exists is significantly enhanced with the increase in the electrolyte concentration. These systems have been characterized by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) experiments of contrast-marching the polymer to the solvent. The data are modeled using a two-Yukawa potential accounting for both attractive and repulsive parts of the interaction between nanoparticles. The phase behavior of nanoparticle–polymer system is explained by interplay of attractive (polymer-induced attractive depletion between nanoparticles) and repulsive (nanoparticle–nanoparticle electrostatic repulsion and polymer–polymer repulsion) interactions present in the system. In the absence of electrolyte, the strong electrostatic repulsion between nanoparticles dominates over the polymer-induced depletion attraction and the nanoparticle system remains in one-phase. With addition of electrolyte, depletion attraction overcomes electrostatic repulsion at some polymer concentration, resulting into nanoparticle aggregation and two-phase system. Further addition of polymer increases the polymer–polymer repulsion which eventually reduces the strength of depletion and hence re-entrant phase behavior. The effects of varying electrolyte concentration on the phase behavior of nanoparticle–polymer system are understood in terms of modifications in nanoparticle–nanoparticle and polymer–polymer interactions. The nanoparticle aggregates in two-phase systems are found to have surface fractal morphology

Size-Dependent Interaction of Silica Nanoparticles with Different Surfactants in Aqueous Solution

The size-dependent interaction of anionic silica nanoparticles with ionic (anionic and cationic) and nonionic surfactants has been studied using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). The surfactants used are anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cationic dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB), and nonionic decaoxyethylene <i>n</i>-dodecylether (C₁₂E₁₀). The measurements have been carried out for three different sizes of silica nanoparticles (8, 16, and 26 nm) at fixed concentrations (1 wt % each) of nanoparticles and surfactants. It is found that irrespective of the size of the nanoparticles there is no significant interaction evolved between like-charged nanoparticles and the SDS micelles leading to any structural changes. However, the strong attraction of oppositely charged DTAB micelles with silica nanoparticles results in the aggregation of nanoparticles. The number of micelles mediating the nanoparticle aggregation increases with the size of the nanoparticle. The aggregates are characterized by fractal structure where the fractal dimension is found to be constant (<i>D </i>≈ 2.3) independent of the size of the nanoparticles and consistent with diffusion-limited-aggregation-type fractal morphology in these systems. In the case of nonionic surfactant C₁₂E₁₀, micelles interact with the individual silica nanoparticles. The number of adsorbed micelles per nanoparticle increases drastically whereas the percentage of adsorbed micelles on nanoparticles decreases with the increase in the size of the nanoparticles

Nanostructure to Microstructure Self-Assembly of Aliphatic Polyurethanes: The Effect on Mechanical Properties

We report the step by step self-assembly from nanostructure to microstructure (bottom-up approach through X-ray diffraction (1.6 nm), small angle neutron scattering (SANS) (11.6 nm), atomic force microscopy (70 nm smaller crystallite from enlarged image and 450 nm greater crystallites), and polarizing optical microscope (2 μm)) of aliphatic polyurethanes (PU) in contrast to aromatic polyurethanes depending on hard segment content (HSC). Polyurethanes of 10 to 80% HSC have been synthesized by using appropriate amount of polyol and chain extender. The effect of self-assembled patterns on mechanical properties both in solid and liquid state has been established exhibiting structure−property relationship of supramolecular polyurethanes. The crystallinity enhances but the degradation temperature decreases with increasing HSC. The characteristic length (measure of gap between lamellar crystallites), as revealed from SANS, gradually decreases with increasing HSC suggesting compactness of the crystallites through extensive hydrogen bonding. The Young’s modulus increases with increasing HSC with a percolation threshold of hard segment (50%) while the toughness improves up to 30% HSC followed by gradual decrease in presence of bigger crystallites which promote brittle fracture. The origin of self-assembly in aliphatic PUs has been demonstrated through electronic structure calculations to form a loop structure with minimum intermolecular distance (2.2 Å) while that distance is quite large in aromatic polyurethanes (4.6 Å) that cannot form hydrogen bonds. The unique splintering of domain structure and its subsequent reformation under dynamic shear experiment has been established

Synthesis and Characterization of High Concentration Block Copolymer-Mediated Gold Nanoparticles

The formation of high concentration gold nanoparticles at room temperature is reported in block copolymer-mediated synthesis where the nanoparticles have been synthesized from hydrogen tetrachloroaureate(III) hydrate (HAuCl4·3H2O) using block copolymer P85 (EO26PO39EO26) in aqueous solution. The formation of gold nanoparticles in these systems has been characterized using UV−visible spectroscopy and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). We show that the presence of additional reductant (trisodium citrate) can enhance nanoparticle concentration by manyfold, which does not work in the absence of either of these (additional reductant and block copolymer). The stability of gold nanoparticles with increasing concentration has also been examined

Adsorption of Nonionic Surfactant on Silica Nanoparticles: Structure and Resultant Interparticle Interactions

Addition of nonionic surfactant, C12E9, to an aqueous dispersion of charge stabilized silica nanoparticles renders particle aggregation reversible. In contrast, aggregation of the same silica particles in aqueous solutions is irreversible. We use a combination of small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and contrast matching small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to investigate interparticle interactions and microstructure in dispersions of silica particles in aqueous nonionic surfactant solutions. We show that the silica particles interact through a screened Coulombic interaction in aqueous dispersions; interestingly, this interparticle interaction is hard-sphere-like in surfactant solutions. In surfactant solutions, we show that the final surfactant−particle structure can be modeled as 14 micelles adsorbed (on average) on the surface of each silica particle. This gives rise to the short-range interparticle repulsion that makes particle aggregation reversible, and results in the hard sphere interparticle interaction potential. Finally, we show that adsorption of polyethylene imine on the surface of the silica particles prevents adsorption of surfactant micelles on the particle surface

Nanostructure-Controlled Shape Memory Effect in Polyurethanes

Different hard segment content (HSC) polyurethanes (PUs) have been synthesized using linear (hexamethylene diisocyanate; HMDI) and alicyclic (isophorone diisocyanate; IPDI) diisocyanates to understand the effect on structure–property relationship and how it affects the shape memory behavior of PUs. Structural details have been elucidated through NMR and other spectroscopic techniques including the quantification of HSC. The nature of interactions between the polymer chains and their extent has been revealed. Thermal and mechanical properties as a function of the chemical structure and HSC indicate faster degradation in higher HSC. Layer-by-layer self-assembly through extensive hydrogen bonding has been established through XRD, small-angle neutron scattering, AFM, and optical images by capturing nanometer scale to micron scale inhomogeneities. The greater interaction in the HMDI system as compared to IPDI PUs leads to the crystallization of the hard segment. The differential shape memory effect has been reported with varying degrees of shape fixity and recovery as a function of HSC. The greater retracting force in the HMDI system with increasing HSC helps to recover greater percentage of the permanent shape; on the contrary, a decreasing shape recovery value is obtained in the IPDI system. Calorimetric measurement shows that the crystallinity of the soft segment decreases in both the systems which results in decreasing shape fixity efficiency with increasing HSC

Structure and Interaction in the pH-Dependent Phase Behavior of Nanoparticle–Protein Systems

The pH-dependent structure and interaction of anionic silica nanoparticles (diameter 18 nm) with two globular model proteins, lysozyme and bovine serum albumin (BSA), have been studied. Cationic lysozyme adsorbs strongly on the nanoparticles, and the adsorption follows exponential growth as a function of lysozyme concentration, where the saturation value increases as pH approaches the isoelectric point (IEP) of lysozyme. By contrast, irrespective of pH, anionic BSA does not show any adsorption. Despite having a different nature of interactions, both proteins render a similar phase behavior where nanoparticle–protein systems transform from being one-phase (clear) to two-phase (turbid) above a critical protein concentration (CPC). The measurements have been carried out for a fixed concentration of silica nanoparticles (1 wt %) with varying protein concentrations (0–5 wt %). The CPC is found to be much higher for BSA than for lysozyme and increases for lysozyme but decreases for BSA as pH approaches their respective IEPs. The structure and interaction in these systems have been examined using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). The effective hydrodynamic size of the nanoparticles measured using DLS increases with protein concentration and is related to the aggregation of the nanoparticles above the CPC. The propensity of the nanoparticles to aggregate is suppressed for lysozyme and enhanced for BSA as pH approached their respective IEPs. This behavior is understood from SANS data through the interaction potential determined by the interplay of electrostatic repulsion with a short-range attraction for lysozyme and long-range attraction for BSA. The nanoparticle aggregation is caused by charge neutralization by the oppositely charged lysozyme and through depletion for similarly charged BSA. Lysozyme-mediated attractive interaction decreases as pH approaches the IEP because of a decrease in the charge on the protein. In the case of BSA, a decrease in the BSA–BSA repulsion enhances the depletion attraction between the nanoparticles as pH is shifted toward the IEP. The morphology of the nanoparticle aggregates is found to be mass fractal