Summarized results for a General Linear Model explaining the richness of infectious diseases in Asia-Pacific.

<p>Initial variables were: nation area, population size, richness in bird and mammal species, mean temperature, mean precipitation, surveys, GDP and health expenditure. Selection of the model was based on AIC criterion. The multicollinearity among independent variables is assessed by the variance inflated factor (VIF).</p

Increase in total outbreaks and total number of infectious diseases causing outbreaks since 1950 in Asia-Pacific countries.

<p>Increase in total outbreaks and total number of infectious diseases causing outbreaks since 1950 in Asia-Pacific countries.</p

Partial relationships (partial correlation using residuals of the best models selected in Table 1) between the richness of infectious diseases and (A) the richness of bird and mammal species and (B) population size (partial correlation of the best GLM selected in Table 1).

<p>Partial relationships (partial correlation using residuals of the best models selected in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0090032#pone-0090032-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>) between the richness of infectious diseases and (A) the richness of bird and mammal species and (B) population size (partial correlation of the best GLM selected in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0090032#pone-0090032-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>).</p

Relationships between the number of diseases causing outbreaks and biodiversity indices in Asia-Pacific countries (partial correlations of the best GLM selected in Table 2).

<p>A. Total number of infectious diseases with outbreaks and number of threatened vertebrate species. B. Total zoonotic diseases with outbreaks and number of threatened vertebrate species. C. Total number of vector-borne diseases with outbreaks and forest cover.</p

Summarized results for a General Linear Model explaining the number of infectious diseases with epidemics (total, zoonotic and vector-borne) in Asia-Pacific.

<p>Initial variables were: nation area size, population size, richness of bird and mammal species, number of threatened vertebrate species, proportion of forest, mean temperature, mean precipitation, surveys, GDP and health expenditure. Selection of the best models was based on AIC criterion (see all models in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0090032#pone.0090032.s002" target="_blank">File S2</a>). Selected variables are ranked by increasing contribution to the model (F value). The multicollinearity among independent variables is assessed by the variance inflated factor (VIF).</p

Figure 1

<p>A. Correlation among geographic (latitude, evapotranspiration, nation area size), climate (mean temperature, mean precipitation), and socio-economic variables (population size, GPD <i>per capita</i>, health expenditure), and health surveys, potentially linked with the richness infectious diseases and their outbreaks (see raw data in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0090032#pone.0090032.s001" target="_blank">File S1</a>): B. Principal Component Analysis on geographic (latitude, evapotranspiration, nation area size), biodiversity (bird and mammal richness, forest cover, vertebrate species at threat), climate (mean temperature, mean precipitation), and socio-economic variables (population size, GPD <i>per capita</i>, health expenditure), and health surveys, potentially linked with the richness infectious diseases. Distributions of variables were normalized using log-transformation or asin-square root transformation (see raw data in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0090032#pone.0090032.s001" target="_blank">File S1</a>).</p

Elucidating structure and dynamics of glutathione S-transferase from <i>Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus</i>

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is tick parasite that affects the cattle industry worldwide. In R. (B.) microplus, acaricide resistance develops rapidly against many commercial acaricides. One of main resistance strategies is to enhance the metabolic detoxification mediated by R. (B.) microplus glutathione-S-transferase (RmGST). RmGST detoxifies acaricides by catalyzing the conjugation of glutathione to acaricides. Although structural and dynamic details of RmGST are expected to elucidate the biologic activity of this molecule, these data have not been available to date. Thus, Molecular Dynamics simulations were employed to study ligand-free RmGST at an atomic level. Like other m-class GSTs, the flexible m loop (m1) of RmGST was observed. M1 seems to shield the active sites from the bulk. A RmGST dimer is stabilized by the lock-and-key motif (F57 as “key”) and hydrogen bonds of R82-E91 and R82-D98 at the dimer interface. Without substrates, conserved catalytic Y116 and N209 can interact with V112, G210 (for Y116) and F215 (for N209). Overall, most residues involving in RmGST function and stability are similar to other m-class GSTs. This implies similar structural stability and catalytic activity of RmGST to other GSTs. An insight obtained here will be useful for management of acaricide resistance and tick control. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma</p

Dynamic and structural insights into tick serpin from <i>Ixodes ricinus</i>

Ixodid ticks have a crucial impact on people and domestic animals worldwide. These parasites also pose a serious threat to livestock. To date, vaccination of hosts against ticks is a safer, more sustainable alternative to chemical control of ticks and the disease agents they transmit. Because of their roles in tick physiology, serpins (serine protease inhibitors) from tick saliva are among the candidates for anti-tick vaccines. Inhibitory serpins employ a suicide inhibition mechanism to inhibit proteases, where the serpin reactive centre loop (RCL) is cleaved, by the targeted protease, and then inserted into the main β-sheet of the serpin. This causes a massive conformational change called the ‘stressed to relaxed’ (S→R) transition, leading to the breakdown of serpin into two regions (core domain and cleaved polypeptide). Recently, the first tick serpin crystal structure from Ixodes ricinus in R-state was reported. We thus employed molecular dynamics simulations to better understand serpin structure and dynamics in atomic detail. Overall, R-state serpin showed high rigidity, especially the core domain. The most flexible region is the terminal of the cleaved polypeptide, due to its high-water exposure, while the rest of the cleaved polypeptide is stably trapped behind the core domain. T363, D367 and N375 are found to play a vital role in protein–protein attachment. This finding can be used to explain the high stability of the R-state serpin at the atomic level and provides insight into this tick serpin which will be useful for rational anti-tick vaccine development. AbbreviationsMDMolecular DynamicsRCLReactive centre loop Molecular Dynamics Reactive centre loop Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma</p

Geographic distribution of <i>Leptospira</i> infection in rodents from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.

<p>Geographic distribution of <i>Leptospira</i> infection in rodents from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.</p

Prevalence of <i>Leptospira</i> species according to locality and rodent species from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.

<p>Prevalence of <i>Leptospira</i> species according to locality and rodent species from Thailand, Lao PDR and Cambodia.</p