Using 3D Voronoi grids in radiative transfer simulations

Probing the structure of complex astrophysical objects requires effective three-dimensional (3D) numerical simulation of the relevant radiative transfer (RT) processes. As with any numerical simulation code, the choice of an appropriate discretization is crucial. Adaptive grids with cuboidal cells such as octrees have proven very popular, however several recently introduced hydrodynamical and RT codes are based on a Voronoi tessellation of the spatial domain. Such an unstructured grid poses new challenges in laying down the rays (straight paths) needed in RT codes. We show that it is straightforward to implement accurate and efficient RT on 3D Voronoi grids. We present a method for computing straight paths between two arbitrary points through a 3D Voronoi grid in the context of a RT code. We implement such a grid in our RT code SKIRT, using the open source library Voro++ to obtain the relevant properties of the Voronoi grid cells based solely on the generating points. We compare the results obtained through the Voronoi grid with those generated by an octree grid for two synthetic models, and we perform the well-known Pascucci RT benchmark using the Voronoi grid. The presented algorithm produces correct results for our test models. Shooting photon packages through the geometrically much more complex 3D Voronoi grid is only about three times slower than the equivalent process in an octree grid with the same number of cells, while in fact the total number of Voronoi grid cells may be lower for an equally good representation of the density field. We conclude that the benefits of using a Voronoi grid in RT simulation codes will often outweigh the somewhat slower performance.Comment: 9 pages, 7 figures, accepted by A

Efficient 3D NLTE dust radiative transfer with SKIRT

We present an updated version of SKIRT, a 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code developed to simulate dusty galaxies. The main novel characteristics of the SKIRT code are the use of a stellar foam to generate random positions, an efficient combination of eternal forced scattering and continuous absorption, and a new library approach that links the radiative transfer code to the DustEM dust emission library. This approach enables a fast, accurate and self-consistent calculation of the dust emission of arbitrary mixtures of transiently heated dust grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, even for full 3D models containing millions of dust cells. We have demonstrated the accuracy of the SKIRT code through a set of simulations based on the edge-on spiral galaxy UGC 4754. The models we ran were gradually refined from a smooth, 2D, LTE model to a fully 3D model that includes NLTE dust emission and a clumpy structure of the dusty ISM. We find that clumpy models absorb UV and optical radiation less efficiently than smooth models with the same amount of dust, and that the dust in clumpy models is on average both cooler and less luminous. Our simulations demonstrate that, given the appropriate use of optimization techniques, it is possible to efficiently and accurately run Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations of arbitrary 3D structures of several million dust cells, including a full calculation of the NLTE emission by arbitrary dust mixtures.Comment: 15 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

Three-dimensional continuum radiative transfer simulations of dusty systems

3D continuum radiative transfer is one of the remaining grand challenge problems in computational astrophysics. Yet it is key to understanding the three-dimensional structure of astronomical objects for which we can observe only two-dimensional projections on the plane of the sky. We present SKIRT, a Monte Carlo code designed to treat 3D continuum radiative transfer problems in dusty systems. It has been used to study the effects of dust absorption, scattering and emission on the observed properties of galaxies, circumstellar discs and AGNs. The code can handle arbitrary geometries and different dust mixtures, even at large optical depths and/or including very small grains. We present a number of recent computational techniques that have been instrumental in making the code fast and reliable, even for complex geometries. We also show some recent 3D simulations to highlight the possibilities of modern radiative transfer codes

The heating of diffuse dust at large scale in AGNs: a radiative transfer model study

The panchromatic, broad-band, spectral energy distribution (SED) of galaxies is usually modelled by combining together the theoretical spectra of its emission components: stars in the optical/near-infrared, and thermal emission by dust -heated by the stellar radiation field- in the infrared. SED fitting codes such as MAGPHYS and CIGALE are capable to automatically fit observed multiwavelength data of galaxies, providing a set of galactic properties as a result. The situation gets somehow complicated when Active Galaxies (both local, low-luminosity Seyferts, and the bright QSOs) are considered. Very often, in fact, their observed near- and mid-infrared (NIR and MIR, respectively) SED is dominated by the emission of hot dust located close to the supermassive, active black hole which powers the bulk of their luminosity. Hence, a third component must be added to the set of theoretical SEDs: that of the molecular torus which surrounds the disk of gas accreting onto the supermassive black hole. The standard way to do it, is to simply add such models to the observed SED, until the MIR gap is filled. This implicitly assumes that the AGN has no influence whatsoever on the dust properties on scales larger than that of the torus (~few pc). I am investigating whether this assumption is valid, in which cases, and under which circumstances the AGN provides a non negligible contribution to the interstellar radiation field heating the diffuse dust in galaxies. This is accomplished by means of radiative transfer models which take into account the most relevant characteristics of the problem: the relative dust-stars distribution and the very wide range of spatial scales involved.</p