Silvopastoral agroforestry - an option to support sustainable grassland intensification

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Biased competition through variations in amplitude of γ-oscillations

Experiments in visual cortex have shown that the firing rate of a neuron in response to the simultaneous presentation of a preferred and non-preferred stimulus within the receptive field is intermediate between that for the two stimuli alone (stimulus competition). Attention directed to one of the stimuli drives the response towards the response induced by the attended stimulus alone (selective attention). This study shows that a simple feedforward model with fixed synaptic conductance values can reproduce these two phenomena using synchronization in the gamma-frequency range to increase the effective synaptic gain for the responses to the attended stimulus. The performance of the model is robust to changes in the parameter values. The model predicts that the phase locking between presynaptic input and output spikes increases with attention

Past, present, and future of agroforestry systems in Europe in agroforestry: the future of global land use

Many traditional land-use systems in Europe involved agroforestry in the pre-industrial era, but, over the years, increased mechanization led to the development of increasingly specialized crop, animal and wood production systems. As a consequence, the area under agroforestry declined in many regions of Europe, and agroforestry systems became confined to situations where understorey primary production is restricted due to cold temperatures (Boreal and Alpine areas) or drought (Mediterranean areas) and to plots that are hard to reach or too small for cultivation with modern machinery, as in Spain, Italy and the lower altitude mountain regions in southern and central Germany. On the whole, agroforestry continued to be practised only where it enabled farmers to obtain economic returns from lands that were otherwise relatively unproductive and mostly limited to silvopastoral practices. Since the mid-1990s, however, European policies have encouraged land management systems that combine production, environmental services (biodiversity, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and water quality) and social benefits, and this has created a new interest in agroforestry systems. Today, the major agroforestry practices in Europe include silvopasture and silvoarable. However, the benefits and opportunities offered by agroforestry can only be realized with substantial investments and coordinated efforts in research, education, knowledge transfer and appropriate national policies across Europe