Understanding the Reactivity, Selectivity, and Deactivation of Frustrated Lewis Pairs for Semihydrogenation of Acetylene

A good catalyst for semihydrogenation of alkynes must preclude both over-hydrogenation of alkene to alkane and isomerization to the other alkene isomer. In addition, it should balance the trade-off between selectivity and activity. In 2013, the Repo and Pápai groups reported a frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) (1-NMe2-2-B(C6F5)2-C6H4), 1, which is a metal-free catalyst and for the first time shows excellent reactivity for the hydrogenation of internal alkynes. However, it is unreactive for terminal alkynes. In this work, we have designed 13 FLPs, a–m, based on 1 by varying the Lewis base site with N and P and the Lewis acid site with B, Al, Ga, and In and replacing pentafluorophenyl with 1,3,5-trifluorophenyl, phenyl, or trifluoromethyl. We apply density functional theory to study the activity, selectivity, and deactivation of FLP 1-m for acetylene semihydrogenation. The catalytic cycle consists of three steps: (1) alkyne insertion, (2) H2 heterolysis, and (3) intramolecular protonation. We found the activity does not change much by the modification of bulky ligands, while it decreases with the direct replacement of LA and LB sites. The overall activity depends on steps 1 and 3, which are, respectively, positively and negatively linear correlated with the charge of the Lewis acid site. Most of the FLPs in this work show comparable or better selectivity for semihydrogenation of acetylene than 1. FLP deactivation is due to the strong binding of acetylene and the elimination of electron-withdrawing bulky ligands at the preactivated catalyst rather than at activated catalysts. Taking the selectivity and stability of FLPs into account, we predict d and k are potentially active for terminal alkynes

Understanding the Reactivity, Selectivity, and Deactivation of Frustrated Lewis Pairs for Semihydrogenation of Acetylene

A good catalyst for semihydrogenation of alkynes must preclude both over-hydrogenation of alkene to alkane and isomerization to the other alkene isomer. In addition, it should balance the trade-off between selectivity and activity. In 2013, the Repo and Pápai groups reported a frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) (1-NMe2-2-B(C6F5)2-C6H4), 1, which is a metal-free catalyst and for the first time shows excellent reactivity for the hydrogenation of internal alkynes. However, it is unreactive for terminal alkynes. In this work, we have designed 13 FLPs, a–m, based on 1 by varying the Lewis base site with N and P and the Lewis acid site with B, Al, Ga, and In and replacing pentafluorophenyl with 1,3,5-trifluorophenyl, phenyl, or trifluoromethyl. We apply density functional theory to study the activity, selectivity, and deactivation of FLP 1-m for acetylene semihydrogenation. The catalytic cycle consists of three steps: (1) alkyne insertion, (2) H2 heterolysis, and (3) intramolecular protonation. We found the activity does not change much by the modification of bulky ligands, while it decreases with the direct replacement of LA and LB sites. The overall activity depends on steps 1 and 3, which are, respectively, positively and negatively linear correlated with the charge of the Lewis acid site. Most of the FLPs in this work show comparable or better selectivity for semihydrogenation of acetylene than 1. FLP deactivation is due to the strong binding of acetylene and the elimination of electron-withdrawing bulky ligands at the preactivated catalyst rather than at activated catalysts. Taking the selectivity and stability of FLPs into account, we predict d and k are potentially active for terminal alkynes

Understanding the Reactivity, Selectivity, and Deactivation of Frustrated Lewis Pairs for Semihydrogenation of Acetylene

A good catalyst for semihydrogenation of alkynes must preclude both over-hydrogenation of alkene to alkane and isomerization to the other alkene isomer. In addition, it should balance the trade-off between selectivity and activity. In 2013, the Repo and Pápai groups reported a frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) (1-NMe2-2-B(C6F5)2-C6H4), 1, which is a metal-free catalyst and for the first time shows excellent reactivity for the hydrogenation of internal alkynes. However, it is unreactive for terminal alkynes. In this work, we have designed 13 FLPs, a–m, based on 1 by varying the Lewis base site with N and P and the Lewis acid site with B, Al, Ga, and In and replacing pentafluorophenyl with 1,3,5-trifluorophenyl, phenyl, or trifluoromethyl. We apply density functional theory to study the activity, selectivity, and deactivation of FLP 1-m for acetylene semihydrogenation. The catalytic cycle consists of three steps: (1) alkyne insertion, (2) H2 heterolysis, and (3) intramolecular protonation. We found the activity does not change much by the modification of bulky ligands, while it decreases with the direct replacement of LA and LB sites. The overall activity depends on steps 1 and 3, which are, respectively, positively and negatively linear correlated with the charge of the Lewis acid site. Most of the FLPs in this work show comparable or better selectivity for semihydrogenation of acetylene than 1. FLP deactivation is due to the strong binding of acetylene and the elimination of electron-withdrawing bulky ligands at the preactivated catalyst rather than at activated catalysts. Taking the selectivity and stability of FLPs into account, we predict d and k are potentially active for terminal alkynes

Simple Approximation for the Ideal Reference State of Gases Adsorbed on Solid-State Surfaces

Reference states are useful as models for facilitating calculations of equilibrium constants, and they may also serve as standard states that are convenient for organizing and tabulating thermodynamic data; however, standard state conventions and appropriate reference states for adsorbed species have received less attention than those for pure substances and solutes. Here, we compare seven choices of reference states for calculations of equilibrium constants and transition state theory rate constants for flat surfaces, in particular (1) an ideal 2D harmonic oscillator, (2) an ideal rigid-molecule harmonic oscillator, (3) an ideal 2D harmonic oscillator with separable surface modes, (4) a 2D ideal gas, (5) an ideal 2D hindered translator, (6) an ideal 2D hindered translator with lowest-order barriers, and (7) a simple ideal 2D hindered translator proposed in this work. The advantage of models 5–7 is that they can treat both mobile and localized adsorbates in a consistent way, whereas models 1–3 are only appropriate for localized adsorbates, and model 4 is only appropriate for a freely translating adsorbate. Furthermore, models 6 and 7 reduce the computational cost without the user having to calculate barrier heights for diffusion. An advantage of the simple ideal 2D hindered translator is that it has a physical high-temperature limit. We also propose a reference state for nonflat surfaces. The user is encouraged to choose a reference state based on the appropriateness of the model and the practicality of the calculations

Design of Lewis Pair-Functionalized Metal Organic Frameworks for CO₂ Hydrogenation

Efficient catalytic reduction of CO₂ is critical for the large-scale utilization of this greenhouse gas. We have used density functional electronic structure methods to design a catalyst for producing formic acid from CO₂ and H₂ via a two-step pathway having low reaction barriers. The catalyst consists of a microporous metal organic framework that is functionalized with Lewis pair moieties. These functional groups are capable of chemically binding CO₂ and heterolytically dissociating H₂. Our calculations indicate that the porous framework remains stable after functionalization and chemisorption of CO₂ and H₂. We have identified a low barrier pathway for simultaneous addition of hydridic and protic hydrogens to carbon and oxygen of CO₂, respectively, producing a physisorbed HCOOH product in the pore. We find that activating H₂ by dissociative adsorption leads to a much lower energy pathway for hydrogenating CO₂ than reacting H₂ with chemisorbed CO₂. Our calculations provide design strategies for efficient catalysts for CO₂ reduction

Screening Lewis Pair Moieties for Catalytic Hydrogenation of CO₂ in Functionalized UiO-66

The capture and reuse of CO₂ as a liquid fuel could reduce the overall anthropogenic carbon footprint but requires a catalytic pathway for CO₂ hydrogenation under mild conditions, coupled with a renewable source of H₂ or another reducing agent. We have computationally designed eight functional groups having both Lewis acid and base sites for inclusion inside a porous metal–organic framework (MOF) and have evaluated these functionalized MOFs for their catalytic activity toward CO₂ hydrogenation. We have used density functional theory to compute reaction energies, barriers, and geometries for the elementary steps of CO₂ reduction. The reaction pathways involve two elementary steps for each of the eight functional groups, consisting of heterolytic dissociation of H₂ on the Lewis acid and base sites followed by concerted addition of a hydride and a proton to CO₂ in a single step. Our analysis of the reaction energetics reveals that the reaction barrier for hydrogen dissociation can be correlated as a function of the chemical hardness of the Lewis acid site. Furthermore, we have identified a Brønsted–Evans–Polanyi relationship relating the barrier for the second step, CO₂ hydrogenation, with the H₂ adsorption energy on the Lewis sites. Surprisingly, this linear relationship also holds for correlating the hydrogenation barrier with the hydride attachment energy for the gas-phase Lewis acid site. These correlations provide a computationally efficient method for screening functional groups for their catalytic activity toward CO₂ hydrogenation. These relationships are further utilized to carry out a Sabatier analysis on a simplified model of the reaction to generate contour plots of the Sabatier activity that can be used to identify properties of the functional groups for maximizing the reaction rate

Organic Linker Effect on the Growth and Diffusion of Cu Clusters in a Metal–Organic Framework

One reason that metal nanoparticles encapsulated in metal−organic frameworks are of interest is that confinement effects on the particle size and shape may lead to superior catalytic activity. The interior of a metal–organic framework has the potential to influence nucleation and aggregation of metal nanoparticles and to strongly affect their in situ shape and electronic properties. We apply density functional theory and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) to model the nucleation and diffusion of Cun (n = 1–19) clusters on the tetratopic 1,3,6,8-(p-benzoate)­pyrene (TBAPy4–) linkers of NU-1000 frameworks. We find that Cu atoms and Cu clusters are stabilized by the TBAPy linker, especially by the edge site of aromatic rings. The stabilization increases when the Cu cluster interacts with two linkers. We identified the most favorable site for Cu cluster adsorption as the window site that connects the c pore and the triangular pore. A Pt atom is found to bind much more strongly than a Cu atom on the TBAPy linker, and AIMD simulations show that this promotes Pt atom diffusion from the center of a Cu15 cluster to the interface between the linker and the cluster. The strong interaction between a Pt atom and a linker is attributed to the greater metal-to-linker charge transfer

Organic Linker Effect on the Growth and Diffusion of Cu Clusters in a Metal–Organic Framework

One reason that metal nanoparticles encapsulated in metal−organic frameworks are of interest is that confinement effects on the particle size and shape may lead to superior catalytic activity. The interior of a metal–organic framework has the potential to influence nucleation and aggregation of metal nanoparticles and to strongly affect their in situ shape and electronic properties. We apply density functional theory and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) to model the nucleation and diffusion of Cun (n = 1–19) clusters on the tetratopic 1,3,6,8-(p-benzoate)­pyrene (TBAPy4–) linkers of NU-1000 frameworks. We find that Cu atoms and Cu clusters are stabilized by the TBAPy linker, especially by the edge site of aromatic rings. The stabilization increases when the Cu cluster interacts with two linkers. We identified the most favorable site for Cu cluster adsorption as the window site that connects the c pore and the triangular pore. A Pt atom is found to bind much more strongly than a Cu atom on the TBAPy linker, and AIMD simulations show that this promotes Pt atom diffusion from the center of a Cu15 cluster to the interface between the linker and the cluster. The strong interaction between a Pt atom and a linker is attributed to the greater metal-to-linker charge transfer

Organic Linker Effect on the Growth and Diffusion of Cu Clusters in a Metal–Organic Framework

One reason that metal nanoparticles encapsulated in metal−organic frameworks are of interest is that confinement effects on the particle size and shape may lead to superior catalytic activity. The interior of a metal–organic framework has the potential to influence nucleation and aggregation of metal nanoparticles and to strongly affect their in situ shape and electronic properties. We apply density functional theory and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) to model the nucleation and diffusion of Cun (n = 1–19) clusters on the tetratopic 1,3,6,8-(p-benzoate)­pyrene (TBAPy4–) linkers of NU-1000 frameworks. We find that Cu atoms and Cu clusters are stabilized by the TBAPy linker, especially by the edge site of aromatic rings. The stabilization increases when the Cu cluster interacts with two linkers. We identified the most favorable site for Cu cluster adsorption as the window site that connects the c pore and the triangular pore. A Pt atom is found to bind much more strongly than a Cu atom on the TBAPy linker, and AIMD simulations show that this promotes Pt atom diffusion from the center of a Cu15 cluster to the interface between the linker and the cluster. The strong interaction between a Pt atom and a linker is attributed to the greater metal-to-linker charge transfer