RECENT CASE NOTES

<p><i>Notes</i>: H-sites and L-sites refer to high-tide-zone sites and low-tide-zone sites, respectively.</p><p>Results of <i>t</i>-test for effects of different stands on aboveground net primary production (ANPP), soil pH, total carbon (TC), organic and inorganic carbon (SOC and SIC, 0–100 cm), and SMBC.</p

Schematic showing the meta-ecosystem of the Northern Highlands Lake District (NHLD), modified from Fig 5.

<p>In the NHLD meta-ecosystem, the atmosphere and downstream are exterior inexhaustible compartments. As all attention was paid on the C fluxes among compartments, atmosphere and downstream would be regarded as the opposite compartments, and its accumulation could be described with negative values. DOC, dissolved organic carbon; DIC, dissolved inorganic carbon; GPP, gross primary production; P, precipitation; Litter, leaf litter; A, accumulation; S, sedimentation.</p

Estimated C fluxes into and out of the three major compartments (forests, wetlands and surface waters) of the NHLD [17].

<p>Estimated C fluxes into and out of the three major compartments (forests, wetlands and surface waters) of the NHLD [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref017" target="_blank">17</a>].</p

Decision tree of analyzing and classifying landscape systems.

<p>The systemic landscape system embraces all significantly interconnected ecosystems; the fragmental one only embraces a part of significantly interconnected ecosystems; the omnidirectionally discrete one embraces a collection of relatively isolated ecosystems; the laterally discrete one embraces a collection of laterally isolated ecosystems. Small circles represent ecosystems; outer circles represent landscape systems; double-sided arrows represent significant fluxes.</p

Global constraints and holistic properties of a meta-ecosystem [4, 12, 13].

<p>Global constraints and holistic properties of a meta-ecosystem [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref004" target="_blank">4</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref012" target="_blank">12</a>, <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref013" target="_blank">13</a>].</p

Schematic showing three C fluxes network (i.e. the upper for the best estimated one, the middle for the relatively active one and the lower for the relatively inactive one) in the meta-ecosystem of the Northern Highlands Lake District (NHLD), following Fig 7.

<p>In the C fluxes network of “best estimated” scenario, we used the C fluxes with best estimated net accumulation and fluxes. In the C fluxes network of “relatively active” scenario, we used a set of C fluxes with relatively higher net accumulation and fluxes. In the C fluxes network of “relatively inactive” scenario, we used a set of C fluxes with relatively lower net accumulation and fluxes. In this C fluxes network, the atmosphere and downstream are exterior compartments.</p

TST, AMI, A, C and R of the C fluxes network in three scenarios (i.e. best estimated, relatively active and relatively inactive) of the Northern Highlands Lake District (NHLD) meta-ecosystem.

<p>TST, AMI, A, C and R of the C fluxes network in three scenarios (i.e. best estimated, relatively active and relatively inactive) of the Northern Highlands Lake District (NHLD) meta-ecosystem.</p

Schematic representation of three types of (three-dimensional) landscape systems represented by a two-dimensional diagram.

<p>Schematic representation of three types of (three-dimensional) landscape systems represented by a two-dimensional diagram.</p

Schematic showing the adjusted C fluxes network (with best estimated fluxes) in the meta-ecosystem of the Northern Highlands Lake District (NHLD), modified from Fig 6.

<p>The atmosphere and downstream are exterior inexhaustible compartments.</p

Decision tree for deciding whether spatial features need to be considered in studying ecosystem function in heterogeneous ecological systems (landscapes) (Adapted from fig 24.2 of Lovett and others [5]).

<p>The decision tree leads to three different models to dealing with spatial heterogeneity: (<i>Homogeneous</i>) assumes spatial homogeneity and characterizes the landscape system by average values of its pools and fluxes; (<i>Mosaic</i>) considers composition only using a mosaic approach, in which the behavior of the process in each ecosystem is modeled separately and the results are summed to yield the whole system behavior; and (<i>Interactive</i>) considers composition, configuration and interacting ecosystems using an interactive model which incorporates the inter-ecosystem exchanges [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref005" target="_blank">5</a>]. That is, perhaps spatial heterogeneity could be safely ignored if there are no lateral fluxes, no spatially variable drivers, and no nonlinearities; however, if there are nonlinearities, then at least, composition of a landscape system must be considered; if lateral fluxes are significant too, then both composition and configuration of a landscape system will be required [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0192569#pone.0192569.ref001" target="_blank">1</a>].</p