Both Cr(VI) and Cr(III) induce mutations in yeast.

<p>Cells of the yeast strain SJR576 carrying the <i>SUP4-o</i> plasmid were treated with or without CrO₃ or CrCl₃ for 24 hours and plated on indicator plates to select for <i>sup4-o</i> mutants. Mutational rates were calculated and plotted. The results are the means of three independent experiments. The error bars represent the means ± SD.</p

The effects of pH (A–C), temperature (D) and DTT (E) on chromium-induced plasmid DNA damadge.

<p>(A) Plasmid DNA samples were treated with increasing concentrations of CrO₃ (0 µM, 20 µM, 40 µM, 80 µM, and 120 µM) in Tris-HCl buffers of pH 5, pH 7, and pH 10.58 and analyzed with agarose gel electrophoresis. (B) Plasmid DNA samples were treated with increasing concentrations of CrCl₃ (0 µM, 20 µM, 40 µM, 80 µM, and 120 µM) in Tris-HCl buffers of pH 5, pH 7, and pH 10.58 and analyzed with agarose gel electrophoresis. (C) Plasmid DNA samples were treated with or without CrO₃ (80 µM) or CrCl₃ (80 µM) in PBS buffers of pH 4, pH 5, pH 7, and pH 10. (D) Plasmid DNA samples were treated with or without CrO₃ (80 µM) or CrCl₃ (80 µM) at 0°C, 20°C, 30°C, and 37°C. (E) Plasmid DNA samples were treated with or without CrO₃ (80 µM) or CrCl₃ (80 µM) in the presence or absence of increasing concentrations of DTT (0.1 mM, 0.5 mM, 1.5 mM, 5.0 mM and 10 mM). DTT concentration used in the absence of a chromium compound was 10 mM.</p

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Additional file 2: Table S1. Result of PLSR models for cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin based on raw spectra and mean centering pretreatment

Effects of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) on the CD spectra of plasmid DNA.

<p>Plasmid DNA (25 ng/µL) was measured in the presence or absence of 150 µM CrO₃ or CrCl₃.</p

Chromium compounds induce DNA damage <i>in vitro</i>.

<p>(A, B) Plasmid DNA (25 ng/uL) was incubated with or without CrO₃ or CrCl₃ at increasing concentrations (0 µM, 20 µM, 40 µM, 80 µM, and 120 µM). Nicking of DNA was manifested as the disappearance of a band of faster-migrating DNA (Band I) and the appearance of a band of slower-migrating DNA (Band II) on agarose gel electropheresis. Degradation of DNA was manifested as the disappearance of both bands. (C, D) Linearized YEplac195 DNA (40 ng/uL) by Hind III and T4 ligase-treated DNA was incubated with different concentrations of CrO₃ and CrCl₃ and re-ligated with T4 DNA ligase. “L” indicates linear DNA and “T4” represents T4 ligase-treated DNA. Reactions were resolved with agarose gel electrophoresis. (E, F) Re-ligated DNA samples pre-treated with different concentrations of CrO₃ or CrCl₃ (0 µM, 20 µM, 40 µM, 80 µM, and 120 µM) were transformed into DH5α competent cells. Relative transformation efficiency was calculated and plotted.</p

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Additional file 3: Figure S2. Selected important wavelengths by competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS). 39 wavelengths for cellulose; 29 wavelengths for hemicellulose and 26 wavelengths for lignin. The number of Monte Carlo sampling runs was set to 50, and tenfold cross-validation was used to evaluate the effectiveness of each subset of variables with a number of highly correlated variables

Effects of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) on <i>Tm</i>.

<p>The plotted are melting curves of a GAPDH gene fragment in the absence (curves 1) and presence of 150 µM CrO₃ (curves 2) or CrCl₃ (curves 3).</p

Effects of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) on binding of ethidium bromide (EB) to DNA molecules.

<p>DNA samples (6 µg/mL) were first incubated in the presence or absence of 150 µM CrO₃ or CrCl₃ and then with equal volume of EB (12 ug/mL). Binding of EB to DNA under each condition was measured as the relative fluorescence intensity unit (RFU).</p

Chromium compounds induce DNA damage in yeast (A–D) and Jurkat cells (E–H).

<p>(A, E) Cells were not treated with chromium or a DNA damage treatment. (B) Cells were treated with 20 µM H₂O₂ for 30 minutes. (C, G) Cells were treated with 300 µM CrO₃ for 24 hours. (D, H) Cells were treated with 150 µM CrCl₃ for 24 hours. (F) Cells were exposed to UV for 1 hour. The slides were viewed using a fluorescent microscope at magnification 200× (A–D) and 100× (E–H).</p

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Additional file 1: Figure S1. Profiles of reference spectra for biofuel pellets extracted from raw near-infrared hyperspectral images