Notes on the taxonomy of some Glassfrogs from the Andes of Peru and Ecuador (Amphibia: Centrolenidae)

We present new information on several species of centrolenid frogs from Ecuador and Peru that justify the placement of Centrolene fernandoi Duellman and Schulte as a junior synonym of Centrolenella audax Lynch and Duellman; Centrolenella puyoensis Flores &amp; McDiarmid as a synonym of Centrolenella mariae Duellman &amp; Toft; and Cochranella tangarana Du-ellman &amp; Schulte as a synonym of Cochranella saxiscandens Duellman &amp; Schulte.</p

Description of the tadpole of Cochranella resplendens and redescription of the tadpole of Hyalinobatrachium aureoguttatum (Anura, Centrolenidae)

Se describe el renacuajo de Cochranella resplendens y se redescribe el de Hyalinobatrachium aureoguttatum, incluyendo información sobre su variación ontogénica. Cochranella resplendens se caracteriza por tener un aparato oral sin inflexión intramarginal y un supraquerostoma casi recto, aunque ligeramente arqueado en la mitad. Por otro lado, H. aureoguttatum tiene un aparato oral con inflexión intramarginal; presenta un característico supraquerostoma en forma de "M" y pocas papilas intramarginales (1-5) en el labio superior. Ninguna de las dos especies mostró una variación significativa en el aparato oral durante su desarrollo (excepto en los estadios Gosner 24 y 42 en C. resplendens y 23-24 en H. aureoguttatum). Los cambios ontogénicos más evidentes fueron en el tamaño y la coloración.Descrevemos o girino de Cochranella resplendens e redescrevemos o girino de Hyalinobatrachium aureoguttatum, incluindo informação sobre sua variação ontogenética. Cochranella resplendens caracteriza-se por apresentar um aparato oral sem inflexão intramarginal e a porção superior do bico córneo quase reta, ainda que ligeiramente arqueado na porção mediana. Por outro lado, H. aureoguttatum possui aparato oral com inflexão intramarginal e apresenta a porção superior do bico córneo característica, em forma de "M", e poucas papilas intramarginais (1-5) no lábio superior. Nenhuma das duas espécies mostrou uma variação significativa no aparato oral durante o desenvolvimento (exceto nos estágios 24 e 42 de Gosner em C. resplendens e 23-24 em H. aureoguttatum). As mudanças ontogenéticas mais evidentes estão relacionadas com o tamanho e a coloração.The tadpole of Cochranella resplendens is described and that of Hyalinobatrachium aureoguttatum is redescribed; information on their ontogenetic variation also is included. Cochranella resplendens is characterized by having a non-emarginated oral apparatus and an upper jaw sheath nearly straight with a smooth arch in the middle. Hyalinobatrachium aureoguttatum has an emarginated oral apparatus with a characteristic M-shaped upper jaw sheath and bears few (1-5) submarginal papillae on the upper labium. Although the two species show few changes in the oral apparatus during their development (except for changes in Gosner Stages 24 and 42 in C. resplendens and 23-24 in H. aureoguttatum), there are major ontogenetic changes in size and coloration

Response to comment on 'Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity'

Lambert et al. question our retrospective and holistic epidemiological assessment of the role of chytridiomycosis in amphibian declines. Their alternative assessment is narrow and provides an incomplete evaluation of evidence. Adopting this approach limits understanding of infectious disease impacts and hampers conservation efforts. We reaffirm that our study provides unambiguous evidence that chytridiomycosis has affected at least 501 amphibian species

Two new species of terrestrial frogs of the Pristimantis gladiator complex (Anura, Strabomantidae) from the Ecuadorian Andes, with insights on their biogeography and skull morphology

The explosive diversity of rainfrogs (Pristimantis spp) reaches its highest levels in the mountains of the Tropical Andes, with remarkable cryptic species mainly in unexplored areas of Ecuador. Based on phylogenetics, morphometric traits, skull osteology and bioacoustics, we describe two new species of Pristimantis, previously confused with Pristimantis gladiator, that belong to the subgenus Trachyphrynus traditionally known as the Pristimantis myersi species group. The two new taxa are closely related, but have allopatric distributions. We discuss the importance of the Quijos and Pastaza River valleys in the diversification along Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes

Evolutionary trade-offs between testes size and parenting in Neotropical glassfrogs

In males, large testes size signifies high sperm production and is commonly linked to heightened sperm competition levels. It may also evolve as a response to an elevated risk of sperm depletion due to multiple mating or large clutch sizes. Conversely, weapons, mate or clutch guarding may allow individuals to monopolize mating events and preclude sperm competition, thereby reducing the selection of large testes. Herein, we examined how paternal care, sexual size dimorphism (SSD), weaponry and female fecundity are linked to testes size in glassfrogs. We found that paternal care was associated with a reduction in relative testes size, suggesting an evolutionary trade-off between testes size and parenting. Although females were slightly larger than males and species with paternal care tended to have larger clutches, there was no significant relationship between SSD, clutch size and relative testes size. These findings suggest that the evolution of testes size in glassfrogs is influenced by sperm competition risk, rather than sperm depletion risk. We infer that clutch guarding precludes the risk of fertilization by other males and consequently diminishes selective pressure for larger testes. Our study highlights the prominent role of paternal care in the evolution of testes size in species with external fertilization

Evolutionary trade-offs between testes size and parenting in Neotropical glassfrogs.

In males, large testes size signifies high sperm production and is commonly linked to heightened sperm competition levels. It may also evolve as a response to an elevated risk of sperm depletion due to multiple mating or large clutch sizes. Conversely, weapons, mate or clutch guarding may allow individuals to monopolize mating events and preclude sperm competition, thereby reducing the selection of large testes. Herein, we examined how paternal care, sexual size dimorphism (SSD), weaponry and female fecundity are linked to testes size in glassfrogs. We found that paternal care was associated with a reduction in relative testes size, suggesting an evolutionary trade-off between testes size and parenting. Although females were slightly larger than males and species with paternal care tended to have larger clutches, there was no significant relationship between SSD, clutch size and relative testes size. These findings suggest that the evolution of testes size in glassfrogs is influenced by sperm competition risk, rather than sperm depletion risk. We infer that clutch guarding precludes the risk of fertilization by other males and consequently diminishes selective pressure for larger testes. Our study highlights the prominent role of paternal care in the evolution of testes size in species with external fertilization

Uncovering hidden specific diversity of Andean glassfrogs of the Centrolene buckleyi species complex (Anura: Centrolenidae)

The glassfrog Centrolene buckleyi has been recognized as a species complex. Herein, using coalescence-based species delimitation methods, we evaluate the specific diversity within this taxon. Four coalescence approaches (generalized mixed Yule coalescents, Bayesian general mixed Yule-coalescent, Poisson tree processes, and Bayesian Poisson tree processes) were consistent with the delimitation results, identifying four lineages within what is currently recognized as C. buckleyi. We propose three new candidate species that should be tested with nuclear markers, morphological, and behavioral data. In the meantime, for conservation purposes, candidate species should be considered evolutionary significant units, in light of observed population crashes in the C. buckleyi species complex. Finally, our results support the validity of C. venezuelense, formerly considered as a subspecies of C. buckleyi

Advertisement and combat calls of the glass frog Centrolene lynchi (Anura: Centrolenidae), with notes on combat and reproductive behaviors

Se describen los cantos de anuncio y de combate de la rana de cristal Centrolene lynchi, una especie endémica de los bosques nublados del Ecuador. El canto de anuncio típico consiste en una nota tonal seguida por 1-3 notas pulsadas, cada una de las cuales tiene 1-3 pulsos. Entre la variación observada en el canto de anuncio está la adición de una nota corta que precede a la tonal, así como también la ausencia de esta última. Estas modificaciones son similares a las observadas en otros anuros y pueden estar relacionadas a la presencia de hembras, otros machos, depredadores y/o cambios en el ruido ambiental. Adicionalmente, se describe el canto de combate emitido durante las peleas entre machos. El combate entre machos es similar al observado en otras especies de la subfamilia Centroleninae y ha sido hipotetizado como una sinapomorfía de la misma. Finalmente, se presenta información sobre los hábitos reproductivos de los machos, cuidado parental y desarrollo de las puestas de huevos.We describe the advertisement and combat calls, combat behavior, and reproductive behavior of the glass frog Centrolene lynchi, an endemic species of the cloud forests of Ecuador. The typical advertisement call consists of a tonal note and 1-3 peaked notes, each with 1-3 pulses. Variations on this advertisement call include the addition of a short note before the tonal note, as well as the absence of the tonal note. These modifications may be similar to the described call modifications of other anurans in response to the presence of conspecific females and males, potential predators and/or changes in the sound environment. Additionally, we describe the combat call emitted during previously undescribed venter-to-venter combat between males. The discovery of this combat behavior is consistent with the hypothesis that venter-to-venter combat behavior is a shared derived trait of the subfamily Centroleninae. Finally, we describe male reproductive habits and development of the species, including egg attendance by males and implied male parental care.Descrevemos aqui os cantos de anúncio e de combate de Centrolene lynchi, uma espécie endêmica dos bosques nublados do Equador. O canto de anúncio típico consiste en uma nota tonal seguida por 1-3 notas pulsadas, cada uma das quais com 1-3 pulsos. Entre a variação observada no canto de anúncio está a adição de uma nota curta que precede a nota tonal e a ausência desta última. Essas modificações são similares às observadas em outros anuros e podem estar relacionadas com a presença de fêmeas, outros machos, predadores e/ou mudanças no ruído do ambiente. Adicionalmente, descrevemos o canto de combate emitido durante as lutas entre machos. O combate entre machos é similar ao observado em outras espécies da sub-família Centroleninae e já foi hipotetizado como uma sinapomorfía do grupo. Finalmente, apresentamos informações sobre os hábitos reprodutivos dos machos, cuidado parental e desenvolvimento dos ovos

Neotropical diversification seen through glassfrogs

Aim We used frogs of the clade Allocentroleniae (Centrolenidae + Allophrynidae; c. 170 species endemic to Neotropical rain forests) as a model system to address the historical biogeography and diversification of Neotropical rain forest biotas. Location Neotropical rain forests. Methods We used an extensive taxon (109 species) and gene (seven nuclear and three mitochondrial genes) sampling to estimate phylogenetic relationships, divergence times, ancestral area distributions, dispersal–vicariance events, and the temporal pattern of diversification rate. Results The Allocentroleniae started to diversify in the Eocene in South America and by the early Miocene were present in all major Neotropical rain forests except in Central America, which was colonized through 11 late range expansions. The initial uplifts of the Andes during the Oligocene and early Miocene, as well as marine incursions in the lowlands, are coincidental with our estimates of the divergence times of most clades of Allocentroleniae. Clades with broad elevational distributions occupy more biogeographical areas. Most dispersals involve the Andes as a source area but the majority were between the Central and the Northern Andes, suggesting that the Andes did not play a major role as a species pump for the lowlands. The diversification of glassfrogs does not follow a south-to-north pattern of speciation for Andean clades, and the establishment of a transcontinental Amazon drainage system is coincidental in time with the isolation of the Atlantic Forest glassfrogs. Diversification analyses indicated that a model of constantly increasing diversity best fits the data, compatible with the ‘evolutionary museum’ hypothesis or ‘ancient cradle’ hypothesis.Main conclusions Our work illustrates how the different geological and climatic historical events of the Neotropics shaped, at different levels of the phylogeny, the diversity of a species-rich clade, highlighting the importance of studying large evolutionary radiations at a continental scale.Main conclusions Our work illustrates how the different geological and climatic historical events of the Neotropics shaped, at different levels of the phylogeny, the diversity of a species-rich clade, highlighting the importance of studying large evolutionary radiations at a continental scale.Peer reviewe