From invisible hand to visible footprint. Økologiske entreprenører som veivisere til et nytt økonomisk paradigme?

Masteroppgave i bedriftsledelse (MBA) - Universitetet i Nordland, 201

Effects of fructan and gluten on gut microbiota in individuals with self-reported non-celiac gluten/wheat sensitivity-a randomised controlled crossover trial

publishedVersio

New update of a fortification model

VKM has calculated the intakes of vitamins and minerals and compared them with the tolerable upper intake levels (UL) in a model for assessing the fortification of food and drink. Fortification means adding vitamins and minerals. The intake calculations cover all age groups. The model has been updated with data from a new dietary survey for adults, and with new tolerable upper intake levels from EFSA for several of the vitamins and minerals. Some of the data entered into the model has been taken from Danish dietary surveys, as there is no Norwegian data available. For most nutrients, it is the amount that can be added for 1- and 2-year-olds that regulates the fortification. The model was established in 2006, and has been updated in 2009, 2013 and 2021. The model does not include the risk of low intake of nutrients. The work has been commissioned by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority, which will use the results from the model as part of the basis for assessing applications for food fortification.New update of a fortification modelpublishedVersio

Risk assessment of quercetin dihydrate and rutin in food supplements – “Other substances”

Background “Other substances” are substances that have a nutritional and/or physiological effect and are not vitamins or minerals. Excessive intake of certain "other substances" may be associated with health risks. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority asked the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM) to assess whether rutin (CAS number 153-18-4) and quercetin dihydrate (CAS number 6151-25-3) from Sophora Japonica (bud/flower) could pose a health risk for the Norwegian population when taken daily as oral supplements as 5 mg rutin for children from 4 years of age, 25 mg rutin for adults from 18 years of age and 500 mg quercetin dihydrate for adults from 18 years of age. Quercetin (3,3′,4′,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) is the prototypical representative of the flavonol subclass of flavonoids. Plants contain quercetin as an aglycone or as various conjugated forms such as glycosides, including isoquercitrin (quercetin 3- O-β-D- glucopyranoside; IQ) and rutin (quercetin 3- O-β-D-rutinoside). The composition of the diverse quercetin glycosides varies between different food plants, whereas quercetin is often present in food supplements as aglycones. Rutin is composed of quercetin and rutinose, a disaccharide of rhamnose and glucose. The low oral bioavailability of quercetin and rutin, caused by their low hydrophilic solubility, can be increased by glucosyl conjugation of these molecules, i.e. by addition of various moieties such as lecithin (a mixture of various glycerophospholipids) or sugars. Quercetin Phytosome® is formulated with sunflower lecithin in a 1:1 weight ratio. Enzymatically modified quercetin glycoside (EMIQ) is an α-glycosyl isoquercitrin (α- oligoglucosyl quercetin 3- O-glucoside). EMIQ is produced through enzymatic conversion of rutin into a mixture of isoquercitrin and its α-glucosyl derivatives with 1– 10 α-glucose moieties connected. A hydroxyethylation reaction has been used to add a hydroxyethyl chain on the hydroxyl groups of rutin to form O-(β-hydroxyethyl)- rutosides (HER). As there are four hydroxyl groups available, mono-, di-, tri- and tetra- HER in various isomeric forms are present in commercial products. In the included studies, all of these chemical forms were studied, since they all are converted to quercetin aglycone in the body.Methods A broad search for review studies was conducted to identify human studies and/or animal toxicity studies on adverse health outcomes related to quercetin or rutin. However, because most reviews did not present much detail on the safety assessment in the human studies, a second systematic search for randomized controlled trials was performed in five databases. From these searches, 2526 records were obtained, which were screened at the level of title/abstract. From these, 140 randomised controlled trials were obtained in full-text and screened against the eligibility criteria. Among these, 45 studies were found to meet the inclusion criteria. Publications that in any way mentioned ‘safety’ or ‘adverse events/effects’ or ‘side-effects’ or had analysed blood or urine or any biological measure with an expressed intent to evaluate safety were considered to meet the inclusion criteria, otherwise they were excluded. Assessment of quercetin and rutin - Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment No specific adverse health outcomes related to quercetin or rutin had been identified before the literature searches. Therefore, the included papers were sorted according to how adverse effects were obtained or measured. Fifteen publications with data based on objectively measured outcomes, such as results of analyses of blood or urine, were defined as Category 1. Eight publications with only data on adverse health effects obtained or registered by subjective methods, such as self-reported adverse effects/adverse events/side-effects by participants, were defined as Category 2. Additionally, 14 publications in Category 1 included also subjectively reported adverse effects/events, i.e. altogether 23 publications reported some data on adverse effects/events or lack of such. Twenty-two publications that only mentioned briefly “no adverse effects/events/side-effects reported”, without any information on how such data were recorded or any details on the results, were defined as Category 3. The publications in Category 1 and 2 were evaluated for risk of bias using the OHAT tool and used in the risk assessment. These OHAT evaluated publications were classified as Tiers 1, 2 or 3, which represent low, moderate and high risk of bias, respectively.Results from the systematic review of adverse effects Among the Category 1 publications, twelve reported that parameters in blood or urine were analysed with the objective to investigate safety of the treatment without reporting any adverse effects. In three studies assessing treatments with 240 mg quercetin per day for 3 months, 150 mg quercetin dihydrate per day for 8 weeks and 150 mg quercetin dihydrate per day for 6 weeks, each reported a single sporadic effect in the direction of adversity but of mild severity (decrease in high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, increased levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and decreased glutathione (GSH) level, respectively). The first two effects were not supported by other endpoints measured in the same study and the third effect could be interpreted as not adverse. In addition, these effects had not been reported in the other included studies, which indicated that they may be chance findings. Therefore, no serious hazards were identified among these Category 1 results. Among the Category 2 publications, five studies stated that no adverse effects were reported by the participants or observed. Eight publications reported adverse event/effects with at least some detail about the observations, however, the reported effects/events were all of minor severity and were either considered not to be study drug-related, the type and numbers of reported effects/events were similar between the treatment and control groups, they occurred in only one person, were self- resolving or did not show a dose-response. Therefore, no serious hazards were identified among these Category 2 results. In addition to the systematic approach used to identify and characterize adverse effects observed in the human randomized controlled trials, additional information on absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME), and toxic effects of the studied substances - mostly from animal studies, was included from various sources, not obtained in a systematic way.Toxicokinetics Quite a lot of data on toxicokinetics/ADME were available for the included substances, both from human pharmacokinetic studies and animal studies. The sugar moieties of the quercetin glycosides may modulate the quercetin bioavailability. These substances Assessment of quercetin and rutin - Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment are converted to quercetin aglycone, which is easier absorbed than substances such as rutin, probably by passive diffusion over the intestinal epithelium or directly via an intestinal transporter molecule. Quercetin may also be subsequently degraded by the colonic microbiota, mainly into different phenolic acids. After absorption, quercetin is extensively metabolised in enterocytes and liver, and it may be glucuronidated, sulfated and/or methylated. In the blood, primarily these quercetin conjugates are found, with only very low levels of the aglycone form. Quercetin is found in some tissues mostly as aglycone, while in other tissues, the unconjugated quercetin is present in smaller proportions. Ingested quercetin is rapidly excreted via urine and feces, and may also be metabolised and excreted via the lungs as CO2. There is interindividual variation in the quantitative ratio of the various metabolites formed and in the rate of absorption and excretion of quercetin, depending on genetic variation, individual antioxidative status and co-administration of other dietary components such as fiber or fat.Toxicological data Based on the available literature, mutagenic and genotoxic effects have been reported in some assays in vitro, but quercetin, rutin and the related substances EMIQ and IQ were not found to be genotoxic in vivo for the doses evaluated in this risk assessment. The discrepancy between in vitro mutagenicity and genotoxicity, and lack of genotoxic or carcinogenic effects in vivo, may be related to the transient nature and the instability of the quercetin quinone methide adducts, as well as various other mechanisms. In a 2-year feeding study by the US National Toxicology Program (1992), there was some evidence of carcinogenic activity of quercetin in male rats receiving up to 1900 mg/kg body weight per day of quercetin based on an increased incidence of renal tubule cell adenomas, but there was no evidence of carcinogenic activity of quercetin in female rats in the same doses. The renal tumor development may be associated with or may be a consequence of the chronic progressive nephropathy occurring only in male rats, with probably no or only little relevance for extrapolation to humans. Other long-term rat studies, two on quercetin and two on EMIQ, did not report any carcinogenic effects. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that “quercetin is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans” (Group 3). Quercetin can most likely cross the placenta since effects on the fetus have been observed after maternal exposure in mice and it is shown for several other flavonoids. Rutin may be able to bind to the estrogen receptor and exert estrogen-like effects. The available studies in mice, rats and rabbits did not find reprotoxic effects of quercetin after exposure during gestation. However, in one experiment with female mice exposed for 9 months during reproductive age, 60% reduction in number of litters was observed after exposure to 5 mg/kg body weight of quercetin for 9 months. In a case-control study, O-(β-hydroxyethyl)-rutoside (HER) treatment with oral doses of 900-1000 mg HER per day for 3-5 weeks during the second and/or third month of pregnancy was found to be associated with a higher risk of certain congenital abnormalities. Similarly, malformation of the limbs the offspring (syndactyly) was found Assessment of quercetin and rutin - Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment in mice after exposure to approximately 67 mg/kg body weight of quercetin for about two weeks during gestation. The only available information on allergenicity, sensitization and irritation was that EMIQ was not a skin sensitizer or irritant in mice.Uncertainty Among the publications in Category 1, ten were evaluated as having low risk of bias and five with moderate risk of bias, and among the publications in Category 2, six were evaluated as having low risk of bias and two with high risk of bias. The main objective in most of these randomized controlled trials was not to examine adverse effects, but beneficial effects. Heterogeneity or mechanisms of action could not be evaluated for most publications due to the lack of reported adverse effects. Furthermore, the publications included were heterogeneous both in relation to the outcomes examined and study duration. In addition to the administered dose(s), the actual exposure to quercetin or rutin is determined by their purity and stability. Information on purity or stability was rarely stated in the available publications, which contribute to the uncertainty of the doses actually causing the reported effects or the lack of affects. To be able to use the included studies in the risk assessment, the given doses of quercetin- and rutin-related substances were recalculated to the corresponding dose of the common substance quercetin aglycone, into which all the related substances are metabolized. However, mostly only one pharmacokinetic study was available per modified substance and, therefore, there is some uncertainty regarding the general applicability of this information, affecting our calculations of quercetin and rutin exposure. Information from human studies with other designs than randomized controlled trials was not systematically included in this risk assessment.Conclusions Based on a systematic review of randomized controlled trials examining effects of quercetin or rutin, which resulted in the inclusion and evaluation of 23 publications with adult participants, VKM considers that exposure to the three requested doses (500 mg quercetin dihydrate, 5 and 25 mg rutin) taken daily for at least up to 3 months in adults does not pose a health risk. Two of the included publications found no adverse effects after administration for up to 6-10 months. No acute toxicity of a single or short-term (5-7 days) exposure was indicated by the results. No specific treatment-related and dose-dependent adverse effects could be identified from the included studies which reported a few outcomes in a potentially adverse direction among the parameters measured in blood or urine, and adverse effects/events/side-effects reported by the participants. By expert judgement, the weight of evidence for absence of adverse effects related to quercetin or rutin in the 23 included randomized controlled trials is judged to be “moderate”. VKM was also requested to consider if 5 mg rutin per day could pose a health risk for children from 4 years of age. None of the included studies investigated exposure Assessment of quercetin and rutin - Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment specifically in children. None of the included studies compared susceptibility to adverse effects in adults and children. Based on the results for adults and supporting evidence from one excluded study with higher daily doses (approximately 40-70 mg rutin plus 100-150 mg quercetin) for 6.5 months, VKM concludes that 5 mg rutin per day up to 6.5 months will not cause adverse effects in children other than possibly transient irritability. Some data indicated that O-(β-hydroxyethyl)-rutoside (HER) and quercetin may induce teratogenic effects in offspring, shown in humans and mice, respectively. Regarding these teratogenic effects, they were observed at similar doses in humans, but at a higher dose in mice, compared with the dose of quercetin dihydrate (recalculated to quercetin aglycone) VKM was requested to evaluate. Because of the lack of sufficient data on pregnant women and their fetuses, and the lack of data on breast-feeding women and their infants, as well as on children in general, it is not known whether these groups may potentially be more susceptible to these substances than adults. Some data indicate that persons with chronic nephropathy or estrogen-dependent cancer may be vulnerable to adverse effects of quercetin.Data gaps There were few publications having evaluation of adverse effects of quercetin and rutin as the main objective. Furthermore, many of the included studies were small and of short duration, even some with single dose administration. Very little data were found on effects of quercetin and rutin on children and pregnant women, and no data on adolescents and breastfeeding women.acceptedVersio

Health risk assessment of Bifidobacterium breve M-16V in infant formula

VKM has not identified any short-term negative health effects from consuming infant formula with Bifidobacterium breve M-16V. However, there is uncertainty and limited research on possible long-term effects. There is also little research conducted independently of the manufacturers. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority has asked VKM to assess whether there may be health risks associated with giving infants (up to 12 months) infant formula supplemented with a specific probiotic bacterium (Bifidobacterium breve M-16V). "Probiotics" generally refers to health products containing live microorganisms, usually bacteria. Currently, some infant formulas outside Norway are supplemented with freeze-dried probiotic bacteria. The bacterium Bifidobacterium breve M-16V (B. breve M-16V) in given concentrations is considered safe in the USA and EU for use in food, but this status is regularly reviewed in the EU and may change if negative health effects are discovered. In infants, the intestinal microbiota (composition of microorganisms) and immune system are not fully developed, and it is uncertain whether the addition of high doses of probiotic bacteria during infancy may have unintended long-term effects. Background for the risk assessment A company has applied to the Norwegian Food Safety Authority to market two specific infant formulas in Norway: one peptide-based and another amino acid-based. The products are intended for infants having allergies and are regulated as foods for special medical purposes. Both products are supplemented with the probiotic bacterium B. breve M-16V. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority has asked VKM to assess whether there may be health risks associated with giving infants these products specifically, and infant formula supplemented with B. breve M-16V in general. VKM’s methodology A multidisciplinary project group appointed by VKM has reviewed documentation from the company. The group has also conducted a systematic literature review of health effects reported in studies where infants received infant formula supplemented with B. breve M-16V and calculated the possible intake of infant formula and B. breve M-16V among Norwegian infants. VKM has only assessed the risk of negative health effects based on the assignment and according to guidelines for probiotics in food, not as a medicinal product. The assessment has been approved by a multidisciplinary approval group, also appointed by VKM. Findings VKM has not found any unwanted properties of B. breve M-16V based on reported laboratory studies and animal experiments. VKM has also not found negative health effects in 13 clinical studies involving a total of 1580 children, of whom 836 received infant formula supplemented with B. breve M-16V (test) and the rest received infant formula without B. breve M-16V (control). The studies lasted from 6 weeks to 12 months (median 16 weeks). VKM found no consistent differences between test and control groups in reported side effects, children's growth, or symptoms from the gastrointestinal tract, skin, or respiratory system as long as the studies were ongoing (short-term). VKM has found only two studies of long-term effects in children one year (development of asthma symptoms) or 3-5 years (neurocognitive outcomes) after they received infant formula with B. breve M-16V. This is too little to draw conclusions about long-term effects.Health risk assessment of Bifidobacterium breve M-16V in infant formulapublishedVersio

Risk assessment of hyaluronic acid in food supplements

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a high-molecular-mass polysaccharide, that is endogenously produced and present in connective tissue, synovial fluid, intraoccular fluid, and skin. The basic unit of the HA polymer consists of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority has requested VKM to evaluate the risk of adverse effects related to daily intake of food supplements with 150 mg, 120 mg, 64 mg, and 48 mg HA. Exposure from other sources of HA (food, cosmetics, and different medical applications) is not estimated.Risk assessment of hyaluronic acid in food supplementspublishedVersio

Risk assessment of hyaluronic acid in food supplements

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a high-molecular-mass polysaccharide, that is endogenously produced and present in connective tissue, synovial fluid, intraoccular fluid, and skin. The basic unit of the HA polymer consists of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority has requested VKM to evaluate the risk of adverse effects related to daily intake of food supplements with 150 mg, 120 mg, 64 mg, and 48 mg HA. Exposure from other sources of HA (food, cosmetics, and different medical applications) is not estimated.Risk assessment of hyaluronic acid in food supplementspublishedVersio

Physical parameters for Orion KL from modelling its ISO high resolution far-IR CO line spectrum

As part of the first high resolution far-IR spectral survey of the Orion KL region (Lerate et al. 2006), we observed 20 CO emission lines with Jup=16 to Jup=39 (upper levels from approx 752 K to 4294 K above the ground state). Observations were taken using the Long Wavelength Spectrometer (LWS) on board the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), in its high resolution Fabry-Perot (FP) mode (approx 33 km s$^{-1}$). We present here an analysis of the final calibrated CO data, performed with a more sophisticated modelling technique than hitherto, including a detailed analysis of the chemistry, and discuss similarities and differences with previous results. The inclusion of chemical modelling implies that atomic and molecular abundances are time-predicted by the chemistry. This provides one of the main differences with previous studies in which chemical abundances needed to be assumed as initial condition. The chemistry of the region is studied by simulating the conditions of the different known components of the KL region: chemical models for a hot core, a plateau and a ridge are coupled with an accelerated Lambda-iteration (ALI)radiative transfer model to predict line fluxes and profiles. We conclude that the CO transitions with 18<Jup<25 mainly arise from a hot core of diameter 0.02 pc and a density of 10$^{7}$ cm$^{-3}$ rather from the plateau as previous studies had indicated.Comment: The paper contains 10 pages, 7 figures and 4 tables. MNRAS accepte

Beregning og vurdering av i hvilken grad høringsutkast til nye kostråd vil dekke behov og anbefalinger for næringsstoffer

acceptedVersio

Beregning og vurdering av i hvilken grad høringsutkast til nye kostråd vil dekke behov og anbefalinger for næringsstoffer

På oppdrag fra Helsedirektoratet er VKM bedt om å beregne og vurdere i hvilken grad et kosthold, i tråd med høringsutkast til nye kostråd datert 22. mars 2024, vil dekke behov og anbefalinger for næringsstoffer for den voksne befolkningen gitt i de nye referanseverdiene for energi og næringsstoffer (Helsedirektoratet, 2023). Oppdraget omfatter den generelle befolkningen fra og med 18 år, og inkluderer gravide og ammende. Denne rapporten vil inngå som en del av underlaget i Helsedirektoratets arbeid med å revidere de nasjonale kostrådene. For å gjøre disse beregningene og vurderingene har VKM konstruert to kostrådsscenarioer. Kostrådsscenarioene skal forstås som to scenarioer konstruert etter rammene og ordlyden i høringsutkastet til kostrådene. Det betyr at disse kostrådsscenarioene ikke dekker det totale matinntaket eller energibehovet for en tenkt gjennomsnittsperson i befolkningen, men kun inkluderer de matvaregruppene som spesifikt er omtalt i utkast til kostråd. Kostrådsscenarioene i denne vurderingen må derfor ikke forveksles med scenarioer som tar utgangspunkt i faktiske mengder spiste matvarer eller scenarioer som har til hensikt å dekke det totale matinntaket for en person. De to kostrådsscenarioene representerer nedre og øvre intervall av mengdene i utkast til kostrådene (lavt og høyt kostrådsscenario). I lavt scenario er mengder for alle matvaregruppene satt til det nedre nivået angitt i utkast til kostråd, og i høyt scenario er alle matvaregruppene satt til det øvre nivået for utkast til kostrådene, med unntak av enkelte matvaregrupper som er satt til samme mengde i begge scenarioer i tråd med høringsutkastet. Ikke alle matvaregruppene har angitte mengdeintervaller i utkast til kostråd, og for disse er mengder fastsatt i samråd med Helsedirektoratet. Hvilke matvarer fra matvaregruppene som er inkludert i lavt og høyt kostrådsscenario er også basert på ordlyden i utkast til kostråd (for eksempel, velg varianter med mindre fett for melk og meieriprodukter). I tillegg er matvarevalget basert på hvilke matvarer som er rapportert spist i nasjonale kostholdsundersøkelser. Vurderingene av om innhold av energigivende næringsstoffer, vitaminer og mineraler i kostrådsscenarioene vil dekke behov og anbefalinger er basert på referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov (AR) og anbefalt inntak (RI) fra Helsedirektoratet (2023), samt en vurdering av sannsynlighet for lavt eller tilstrekkelig inntak basert på vurderingskriterier på gruppenivå fra NNR (2012). Resultatene er uttrykt i prosent av referanseverdiene og er presentert for kvinner og menn hver for seg for de ulike aldersgruppene, samt for gravide og ammende hver for seg. Alle næringsstoffer er vurdert etter samme prinsipp, uavhengig av om dekningsgraden er tett opp mot 100 % av referanseverdiene eller betydelig lavere eller høyere. Vurderingene inkluderer hensyn til i hvilken grad energibehovet er dekket for gruppen i lavt og høyt kostrådsscenario, og viser hvilke matvaregrupper som bidrar mest med de ulike vitaminene og mineralene. I lavt kostrådsscenario er innholdet av vitamin A, vitamin E, tiamin, niacin, vitamin B12, vitamin C, fosfor, magnesium og kobber over referanseverdiene for anbefalt inntak for kvinner og menn ≥18 år, og samme gjelder også for jern hos kvinner ≥51 år. For disse gruppene vil innholdet av disse næringsstoffene sannsynligvis være tilstrekkelig til å dekke behovet hos de fleste ved et kosthold tilsvarende lavt kostrådsscenario. Innholdet av vitamin D, vitamin B6, folat og kalium for kvinner og menn ≥18 år, samt jern for menn ≥18 år, ligger over referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov, men under anbefalt inntak i lavt kostrådsscenario, og vil sannsynligvis kunne være for lavt til å dekke behovet hos en mindre andel av disse gruppene. Videre er innholdet av riboflavin, kalsium, sink, jod og selen for kvinner og menn ≥18 år, samt jern for kvinner 18-50 år, under referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov. Innholdet av disse næringsstoffene vil sannsynligvis kunne være for lavt til å dekke behovet hos en betydelig andel voksne ved et kosthold tilsvarende lavt kostrådsscenario. I høyt kostrådsscenario, som i lavt scenario, er innholdet av vitamin A, vitamin E, tiamin, niacin, vitamin B12, vitamin C, fosfor, magnesium og kobber over referanseverdiene for anbefalt inntak for kvinner og menn ≥18 år. I tillegg er innholdet av riboflavin, vitamin B6, folat, kalium og jod over referanseverdier for anbefalt inntak for kvinner og menn ≥18 år. Kalsium er over anbefalt inntak for kvinner og menn ≥25 år. Jern er over anbefalt inntak for kvinner ≥51 år og menn ≥18 år. Sink er over anbefalt inntak for kvinner ≥18 år og menn >70 år. Innholdet av disse næringsstoffene vil sannsynligvis være tilstrekkelig til å dekke behovet hos de fleste i disse gruppene ved et kosthold tilsvarende høyt kostrådsscenario. Innholdet av alle vitaminer og mineraler ligger over referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov for kvinner og menn ≥18 år i høyt kostrådsscenario. Innholdet av vitamin D (kvinner og menn ≥18 år), kalsium (kvinner og menn 18-24 år), jern (kvinner 18-50 år), sink (menn 18-70 år) og selen (kvinner og menn ≥18 år) er imidlertid under anbefalt inntak, og vil sannsynligvis kunne være for lavt til å dekke behovet hos en mindre andel av disse gruppene ved et kosthold tilsvarende høyt kostrådsscenario. For gravide og ammende er det innholdet av de samme vitaminene og mineralene som er potensielt lavt, men noe mer uttalt, dvs. kostrådsscenarioene dekker en lavere andel av referanseverdiene enn blant kvinner og menn generelt. Dette kommer til uttrykk ved at det er flere vitaminer og mineraler som ligger under referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov også i høyt kostrådsscenario. For gravide gjelder dette folat, jern, og selen, og for ammende gjelder dette folat, som sannsynligvis vil kunne være for lavt til å dekke behovet for disse næringsstoffene hos en betydelig andel av disse gruppene. For ammende er i tillegg innholdet av vitamin A lavere enn referanseverdiene for gjennomsnittlig behov i lavt scenario og under anbefalt inntak i høyt scenario. I hvilken grad behovet for energi er dekket i de to kostrådsscenarioene vil kunne ha betydning for tolkningen av resultatene for vitaminene og mineralene. Et kosthold i samsvar med lavt kostrådsscenario vil kunne dekke 66-76 % av referanseverdiene for energiinntak for kvinner, og 53-62 % for menn, 61 % for gravide og 50 % for ammende. Et kosthold i samsvar med høyt kostrådsscenario vil kunne dekke 87-100 % av referanseverdiene for energiinntak for kvinner, og 69-81 % for menn, 80 % for gravide og 65 % for ammende. Innholdet av vitaminer og mineraler som ligger under referanseverdiene i kostrådsscenarioene kan potensielt økes ved å øke mengdene av matvaregrupper som er gode kilder, forutsatt at det er rom for å øke mengden av disse matvaregruppene innenfor rammen av kostrådene, og forutsatt at energibehovet ikke er dekket. Noen av næringsstoffene som ligger under referanseverdiene i kostrådsscenarioene, har imidlertid få gode kilder. Dette gjelder særlig vitamin D, kalsium og jod. I lavt kostrådsscenario er det handlingsrom innenfor energibehovet for å øke inntaket av flere matvaregrupper slik at kostholdet kan dekke en større andel av behov og anbefalt inntak av vitamin D, riboflavin, folat, kalsium, jern, sink, jod og selen for alle gruppene. I høyt kostrådsscenario er handlingsrommet mindre for å øke inntaket av matvaregrupper med høyt innhold av vitamin D, kalsium, jern, sink og selen.publishedVersio