47 research outputs found

    AppendixS1

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    Blast results, GO annotations, GO annotation terms, associated microsatellites (including motif, primer and product size for each SSR) for each of the contigs and for both tax

    Seasonal dynamics of bees in colonies with low and high levels of mite infestation.

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    <p>(<b>A</b>) Estimated bee numbers recorded in each hive in October, when a sudden decrease of bee population was observed in highly infested colonies. (<b>B</b>) Bee mortality over time. The error bars indicate the standard deviation; mean values significantly different are denoted with asterisks (*<i>P</i>≤0.05; **<i>P</i>≤0.01). Bee population in highly infested colonies reached minimum levels in October, because of a marked increase of bee mortality.</p

    Effect of the down-regulation of the transcription factor <i>dorsal-1A</i> by RNAi on DWV replication in bees.

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    <p>(<b>A</b>) <i>Dorsal-1A</i> transcript level in bees fed for different times with a sucrose/protein solution, containing dsRNA of honeybee <i>dorsal-1A</i> (dsRNA Dorsal) or dsRNA of Green Fluorescent Protein (dsRNA GFP) as a control. (<b>B</b>) Deformed wing virus genome copies in bees treated as above. The error bars indicate the standard deviation. The significant rate (H = 7.00, df = 1: <i>P</i> = 0.008) of silencing of the target gene triggered a significant increase (H = 9.61, df = 1: <i>P</i> = 0.002) of viral replication.</p

    Dorsal expression in virus free and virus infected bees.

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    <p>Dorsal copies in virus free and virus infected honeybee larvae, either infested or not with one <i>Varroa</i> mite, 12 days after cell sealing; the error bars indicate the standard deviation. Average viral load in infected bee larvae, uninfested or infested by the <i>Varroa</i> mite, was 2.40E+10 and 3.22E+12, respectively. Dorsal expression was significantly reduced in virus infected bees compared to virus free bees, while <i>Varroa</i> infestation did not affect gene expression.</p

    Schematic diagram of within-host viral copy number (<i>V</i>) and immune currency (<i>I</i>) dynamics.

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    <p>The bold lines represent dynamical processes captured explicitly in equations S4, S5. In this model, the viral population dynamics are governed by two antagonistic processes, replication and control (by the immune system). The immune dynamics are in turn governed by three processes; maintenance (increasing immune stocks), stressors (depleting immune stocks) and a specific impact of virally-mediated immune modification (ranging from excitatory to suppressive). The dotted lines represent processes that are external to the model: 1) over-growth of the virus directly leads to increased bee mortality and collapse of the colony (<a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat-1002735-g001" target="_blank">Figures 1</a> and <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat-1002735-g002" target="_blank">2</a>); 2) despite impending collapse within a focal colony, the virus can escape its host via horizontal transmission facilitated by its mite symbiont <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735-Rosenkranz1" target="_blank">[21]</a>, <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735-Greatti1" target="_blank">[73]</a>; 3) the mite may gain further advantages from its association with an immuno-suppressive virus, as the suppression will further release immunological control of mite feeding; 4) the mite can affect honeybee survival <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735-Rosenkranz1" target="_blank">[21]</a>.</p

    <i>Varroa</i> infestation and DWV genome copies in infested bees and the effect of viral load on bee survival.

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    <p>(<b>A</b>) Number of DWV genome copies in honeybees larvae artificially infested with different numbers of <i>V. destructor</i> mites, for different time intervals; the error bars indicate the standard error. (<b>B</b>) Survival of honeybees larvae injected with two different dilutions (1∶1,000 and 1∶100,000) of a whole body lysate of bees with deformed wings (DW) and of bees with normal wings as control (NW). Infestation by the <i>Varroa</i> mite caused increasing number of DWV genome copies in infected bees, this significantly affected bee longevity.</p

    Honeybee immune genes showing significant differences (<i>P</i>≤0.05) of their transcription level, as affected by different mite infestation densities.

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    <p>The gene expression values, as Reads Per Kilobase of exon model per Million mapped reads (RPKM) <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735-Mortazavi1" target="_blank">[84]</a>, scored on bees from low infested and highly infested colonies are reported. The “fold change” represents the ratio between the average gene expression value of highly infested colonies and that of low infested ones; values smaller than one indicate a significant transcriptional down-regulation, while those higher than 1 indicate up-regulation. An asterisk marks genes whose differential expression was confirmed by Quantitative Real-Time RT-PCR (<a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735.s002" target="_blank">Figures S2</a> and <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002735#ppat.1002735.s003" target="_blank">S3</a>). A significant down-regulation of several immune genes was observed in bees from highly infested colonies; the most marked effect was recorded for <i>dorsal-1A</i>, a member of the NF-κB gene family.</p
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