Comparisons of baseline characteristics in all cohorts.

Comparisons of baseline characteristics in all cohorts.</p

The SHAP force plots.

The two representative SHAP force plots of a (A) dead and (B) survival patient. SHAP force plots are effective in interpreting the prediction value of the model in critical instances. The contribution of each feature to the output predicted value is shown with arrows with their force associated with the shapley values. Red arrows indicate features increasing the prediction results (i.e., yield values) to reach the predicted value (output value). Blue arrows show features decreasing the prediction values to reach the same output value. The arrows with positive and negative effects on yield values compensate on a point which is the prediction (output) value.</p

The performance of the six in-hospital mortality predictive models.

ROC curves of the six prediction models using all features for predicting in-hospital mortality (A) in training cohort and (B) in the validation cohort.</p

The important features of different models.

The top 15 features derived from (A) random forest, (B) lightGBM, and (C) XGBoost model.</p

The importance of all features derived from lightGBM in the validation set.

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SHAP summary plot of the features of the XGBoost model.

The higher the SHAP value of a feature, the higher the probability of in-hospital mortality development. A dot is created for each feature attribution value for the model of each patient, and thus one patient is allocated one dot on the line for each feature. Dots are colored according to the values of features for the respective patient and accumulate vertically to depict density. Red represents higher feature values, and blue represents lower feature values.</p

The web-based training courses.

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The flow chart of this study.

The flow chart of this study.</p

The importance of all features derived from XGBoost in the validation set.

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Performance of the prediction models using all features.

Performance of the prediction models using all features.</p