Is atomic carbon a good tracer of molecular gas in metal-poor galaxies?

Carbon monoxide (CO) is widely used as a tracer of molecular hydrogen (H2) in metal-rich galaxies, but is known to become ineffective in low metallicity dwarf galaxies. Atomic carbon has been suggested as a superior tracer of H2 in these metal-poor systems, but its suitability remains unproven. To help us to assess how well atomic carbon traces H2 at low metallicity, we have performed a series of numerical simulations of turbulent molecular clouds that cover a wide range of different metallicities. Our simulations demonstrate that in star-forming clouds, the conversion factor between [CI] emission and H2 mass, $X_{\rm CI}$, scales approximately as $X_{\rm CI} \propto Z^{-1}$. We recover a similar scaling for the CO-to-H2 conversion factor, $X_{\rm CO}$, but find that at this point in the evolution of the clouds, $X_{\rm CO}$ is consistently smaller than $X_{\rm CI}$, by a factor of a few or more. We have also examined how $X_{\rm CI}$ and $X_{\rm CO}$ evolve with time. We find that $X_{\rm CI}$ does not vary strongly with time, demonstrating that atomic carbon remains a good tracer of H2 in metal-poor systems even at times significantly before the onset of star formation. On the other hand, $X_{\rm CO}$ varies very strongly with time in metal-poor clouds, showing that CO does not trace H2 well in starless clouds at low metallicity.Comment: 16 pages, 9 figures. Updated to match the version accepted by MNRAS. The main change from the previous version is a new sub-section (3.6) discussing the possible impact of freeze-out and other processes not included in our numerical simulation

On column density thresholds and the star formation rate

We present the results of a numerical study designed to address the question of whether there is a column density threshold for star formation within molecular clouds. We have simulated a large number of different clouds, with volume and column densities spanning a wide range of different values, using a state-of-the-art model for the coupled chemical, thermal and dynamical evolution of the gas. We show that star formation is only possible in regions where the mean (area-averaged) column density exceeds $10^{21} \: {\rm cm^{-2}}$. Within the clouds, we also show that there is a good correlation between the mass of gas above a K-band extinction $A_{\rm K} = 0.8$ and the star formation rate (SFR), in agreement with recent observational work. Previously, this relationship has been explained in terms of a correlation between the SFR and the mass in dense gas. However, we find that this correlation is weaker and more time-dependent than that between the SFR and the column density. In support of previous studies, we argue that dust shielding is the key process: the true correlation is one between the SFR and the mass in cold, well-shielded gas, and the latter correlates better with the column density than the volume density.Comment: 21 pages and 12 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRA

Does the CO-to-H2 conversion factor depend on the star formation rate?

We present a series of numerical simulations that explore how the `X-factor', $X_{CO}$ -- the conversion factor between the observed integrated CO emission and the column density of molecular hydrogen -- varies with the environmental conditions in which a molecular cloud is placed. Our investigation is centred around two environmental conditions in particular: the cosmic ray ionisation rate (CRIR) and the strength of the interstellar radiation field (ISRF). Since both these properties of the interstellar medium have their origins in massive stars, we make the assumption in this paper that both the strength of the ISRF and the CRIR scale linearly with the local star formation rate (SFR). The cloud modelling in this study first involves running numerical simulations that capture the cloud dynamics, as well as the time-dependent chemistry, and ISM heating and cooling. These simulations are then post-processed with a line radiative transfer code to create synthetic 12CO (1-0) emission maps from which $X_{CO}$ can be calculated. We find that for 1e4 solar mass virialised clouds with mean density 100 cm$^{-3}$, $X_{CO}$ is only weakly dependent on the local SFR, varying by a factor of a few over two orders of magnitude in SFR. In contrast, we find that for similar clouds but with masses of 1e5 solar masses, the X-factor will vary by an order of magnitude over the same range in SFR, implying that extra-galactic star formation laws should be viewed with caution. However, for denser ($10^4$ cm$^{-3}$), super-virial clouds such as those found at the centre of the Milky Way, the X-factor is once again independent of the local SFR.Comment: 16 pages, 5 figures. Accepted by MNRA

Star Formation in Transient Molecular Clouds

We present the results of a numerical simulation in which star formation proceeds from an initially unbound molecular cloud core. The turbulent motions, which dominate the dynamics, dissipate in shocks leaving a quiescent region which becomes gravitationally bound and collapses to form a small multiple system. Meanwhile, the bulk of the cloud escapes due to its initial supersonic velocities. In this simulation, the process naturally results in a star formation efficiency of 50%. The mass involved in star formation depends on the gas fraction that dissipates sufficient kinetic energy in shocks. Thus, clouds with larger turbulent motions will result in lower star formation efficiencies. This implies that globally unbound, and therefore transient giant molecular clouds (GMCs), can account for the low efficiency of star formation observed in our Galaxy without recourse to magnetic fields or feedback processes. Observations of the dynamic stability in molecular regions suggest that GMCs may not be self-gravitating, supporting the ideas presented in this letter.Comment: 5 pages, 3 figures, accepted for MNRAS as a lette

On the effects of rotation during the formation of population III protostars

It has been suggested that turbulent motions are responsible for the transport of angular momentum during the formation of Population III stars, however the exact details of this process have never been studied. We report the results from three dimensional SPH simulations of a rotating self-gravitating primordial molecular cloud, in which the initial velocity of solid-body rotation has been changed. We also examine the build-up of the discs that form in these idealized calculations.Comment: 4 pages, AIP Conference Proceedings, First Stars IV from Hayashi to the Future (Kyoto, Japan

The First Stellar Cluster

We report results from numerical simulations of star formation in the early universe that focus on gas at very high densities and very low metallicities. We argue that the gas in the central regions of protogalactic halos will fragment as long as it carries sufficient angular momentum. Rotation leads to the build-up of massive disk-like structures which fragment to form protostars. At metallicities Z ~ 10^-5 Zsun, dust cooling becomes effective and leads to a sudden drop of temperature at densities above n = 10^12 cm^-3. This induces vigorous fragmentation, leading to a very densely-packed cluster of low-mass stars. This is the first stellar cluster. The mass function of stars peaks below 1 Msun, similar to what is found in the solar neighborhood, and comparable to the masses of the very-low metallicity subgiant stars recently discovered in the halo of our Milky Way. We find that even purely primordial gas can fragment at densities 10^14 cm^-3 < n < 10^16 cm^-3, although the resulting mass function contains only a few objects (at least a factor of ten less than the Z = 10^-5 Zsun mass function), and is biased towards higher masses. A similar result is found for gas with Z = 10^-6 Zsun. Gas with Z <= 10^-6 Zsun behaves roughly isothermally at these densities (with polytropic exponent gamma ~ 1.06) and the massive disk-like structures that form due to angular momentum conservation will be marginally unstable. As fragmentation is less efficient, we expect stars with Z <= 10^-6 Zsun to be massive, with masses in excess of several tens of solar masses, consistent with the results from previous studies.Comment: 9 pages, 6 figures. Accepted by ApJ for publicatio

Interpreting the sub-linear Kennicutt-Schmidt relationship: The case for diffuse molecular gas

Recent statistical analysis of two extragalactic observational surveys strongly indicate a sublinear Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) relationship between the star formation rate (Sigsfr) and molecular gas surface density (Sigmol). Here, we consider the consequences of these results in the context of common assumptions, as well as observational support for a linear relationship between Sigsfr and the surface density of dense gas. If the CO traced gas depletion time (tau_mol) is constant, and if CO only traces star forming giant molecular clouds (GMCs), then the physical properties of each GMC must vary, such as the volume densities or star formation rates. Another possibility is that the conversion between CO luminosity and Sigmol, the XCO factor, differs from cloud-to-cloud. A more straightforward explanation is that CO permeates the hierarchical ISM, including the filaments and lower density regions within which GMCs are embedded. A number of independent observational results support this description, with the diffuse gas comprising at least 30% of the total molecular content. The CO bright diffuse gas can explain the sublinear KS relationship, and consequently leads to an increasing tau_mol with Sigmol. If Sigsfr linearly correlates with the dense gas surface density, a sublinear KS relationship indicates that the fraction of diffuse gas fdiff grows with Sigmol. In galaxies where Sigmol falls towards the outer disk, this description suggests that fdiff also decreases radially.Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures, to appear in MNRAS, comments welcom

The star formation efficiency and its relation to variations in the initial mass function

We investigate how the dynamical state of a turbulently supported, 1000 solar mass, molecular cloud affects the properties of the cluster it forms, focusing our discussion on the star formation efficiency (SFE) and the initial mass function (IMF). A variety of initial energy states are examined in this paper, ranging from clouds with PE = 0.1 KE to clouds with PE = 10 KE, and for both isothermal and piece-wise polytropic equations of state (similar to that suggested by Larson). It is found that arbitrary star formation efficiencies are possible, with strongly unbound clouds yielding very low star formation efficiencies. We suggest that the low star formation efficiency in the Maddelena cloud may be a consequence of the relatively unbound state of its internal structure. It is also found that competitive accretion results in the observed IMF when the clouds have initial energy states of PE >= KE. We show that under such conditions the shape of the IMF is independent of time in the calculations. This demonstrates that the global accretion process can be terminated at any stage in the cluster's evolution, while still yielding a distribution of stellar masses that is consistent with the observed IMF. As the clouds become progressively more unbound, competitive accretion is less important and the protostellar mass function flattens. These results predict that molecular clouds should be permeated with a distributed population of stars that follow a flatter than Salpeter IMF.Comment: 8 pages, 6 figures, accepted by MNRAS for publictaion. Now available through the 'Online Early' schem

Clump Lifetimes and the Initial Mass Function

Recent studies of dense clumps/cores in a number of regions of low-mass star formation have shown that the mass distribution of these clumps closely resembles the initial mass function (IMF) of field stars. One possible interpretation of these observations is that we are witnessing the fragmentation of the clouds into the IMF, and the observed clumps are bound pre-stellar cores. In this paper, we highlight a potential difficulty in this interpretation, namely that clumps of varying mass are likely to have systematically varying lifetimes. This timescale problem can effectively destroy the similarity bewteen the clump and stellar mass functions, such that a stellar-like clump mass function (CMF) results in a much steeper stellar IMF. We also discuss some ways in which this problem may be avoided.Comment: 7 pages, 3 figures, accepted to MNRA