Deposition and Fate of Atmospheric Mercury in Forested Landscapes of the Adirondack Park, NY

In this dissertation, I investigated the deposition and fate of atmospheric mercury (Hg) to forested landscapes of the Adirondack region in Upstate New York. Despite the fact that forests are the dominant land cover in North America, there has been relatively little research on the deposition, transport, and fate of Hg within forested ecosystems. The objective of this dissertation was to quantify pathways of Hg deposition in forested sites in the Adirondack Park and to examine spatial and geographic patterns of Hg deposition and fate. The research for this dissertation was conducted in three phases. In Phase One, I compared and contrasted Hg deposition processes and Hg soil pools in a deciduous hardwood plot and a coniferous plot for 2009 and 2010 at Huntington Wildlife Forest. Mercury deposition due to litterfall was similar between the two stands, but total Hg deposition was greater in the coniferous plot due to larger fluxes of throughfall Hg. Soil evasion losses of Hg were significantly higher in the hardwood plot. Despite the fact that Hg deposition was greater and evasion losses were lower, soil Hg pools in the conifer plot were smaller than in the hardwood plot. The loss mechanism of Hg in the conifer stand is not clear. Annual variability in climate conditions was substantial between 2009 and 2010, and changes in Hg deposition quantities appear to be related to variation in temperature and precipitation quantity. In Phase Two of this dissertation, I evaluated the effects of elevation and landscape position on atmospheric Hg deposition. Two transects were established along the eastern and western sides of Whiteface Mountain in the Adirondacks. The 24 sample sites ranged from approximately 450-1450 m above sea level and covered three distinct forest types: deciduous/hardwood forest, spruce/fir conifer forest, and stunted growth alpine/fir forest. Throughfall Hg inputs and Hg accumulation in organic soils were greater in the spruce/fir and alpine areas than the deciduous forest areas. Estimates of cloud water Hg deposition demonstrate that cloud water is an important contributor to total Hg fluxes in alpine environments. Total Hg deposition was correlated to Hg concentrations in organic soil layers. Variation in both physical orographic effects and biological forest types appear to drive Hg deposition processes along this mountainous elevation gradient. In Phase Three of this study, I evaluated spatial patterns of Hg deposition by collecting canopy foliage and organic soils from 45 different plots across the Adirondack Park. The results showed species-specific differences in foliar uptake of Hg with the lowest concentrations found in first-year growth conifer needles and the highest concentrations found in black cherry (Prunus serotina). Latitude and longitude were negatively correlated with Hg concentrations in foliage and humus layer soils, while elevation was positively correlated with Hg concentrations in foliage and humus layer soils. Elemental analysis of foliage and soil also showed strong, positive correlations between Hg concentrations and nitrogen concentrations in foliage and soil. The spatial patterns of Hg deposition within the Adirondack Park are similar to patterns found for other atmospheric contaminants that originate largely from combustion sources, such as nitrogen and sulfur

Foods Scraps Composting and Vector Control

Nontraditional waste management facilities, particularly new projects to compost food scraps, are becoming more common because of national and state initiatives to promote recycling and extend landfill capacities. In fact, food waste is the third largest component of generated waste by weight, following yard trimmings and corrugated boxes. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that each American disposes of 1.3 pounds of food waste daily or nearly 474 pounds annually. While there is a clear need to recycle food waste, the location of waste management facilities and national initiatives on waste management are increasingly controversial, partly because of potential wildlife related impacts. Responsible development of the industry must include management of facilities to minimize waste material serving as attractants to vectors such as birds and mammals that pose hazards to human health and safety. Communication by Barnes Nursery, Inc. with local, state and federal officials about potential wildlife hazards posed by the development of their food waste composting business created an atmosphere of collaboration. We suggest a similar approach for others considering food waste composting operations. However, for those operations proposed within FAA siting criteria for certificated airports under Part 139 of the Code of Federal Regulations, or other airports receiving FAA funding, a Wildlife Hazard Assessment might be deemed mandatory. Good communication with the public and government agencies charged with the safety of the public will benefit your business

BIRD USE OF STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PONDS: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS RELATIVE TO DECREASING STRIKES WITH AIRCRAFT

Airports must control the movement of storm water away from runways, taxiways, and aprons to insure the safety of aircraft operations. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration recommends that such runoff be held for short periods, by use of detention ponds, so as to reduce use by wildlife (Advisory Circular No: 150/5200-33A; Hazardous Wildlife Attractants On or Near Airports). The purpose of our study was to quantify factors that potentially attract avian wildlife to stormwater management ponds so as to more efficiently direct resources toward management of hazards to aviation posed by these habitats, and provide critical input on the design of future stormwater-management structures. We are currently in the analysis phase relative to avian-use data collected weekly from 30 stormwater-management ponds in Washington near Seattle-Tacoma International Airport between 14 February 2005 and 17 February 2006. We are testing 2 primary hypotheses concerning avian use of these stormwater management ponds: 1) avian guild richness is most directly related to pond isolation (ha of wetland resources within 1 km) and 2) guild richness is influenced most by the combination of the surface area of the pond/wetland complex, relative area of emergent vegetation, and pond isolation. Here, we report our initial findings relative to model development, avian use of our 30 sample ponds, and potential implications for stormwater management at airports. Effective and economic management to reduce wildlife hazards at airport detention ponds is dependent upon first identifying/quantifying and prioritizing the factors attracting wildlife, then directing appropriate resources toward those threats

Predicting Chandra CCD Degradation with the Chandra Radiation Model

Not long after launch of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, it was discovered that the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) detector was rapidly degrading due to radiation. Analysis by Chandra personnel showed that this degradation was due to 10w energy protons (100 - 200 keV) that scattered down the optical path onto the focal plane. In response to this unexpected problem, the Chandra Team developed a radiation-protection program that has been used to manage the radiation damage to the CCDs. This program consists of multiple approaches - scheduled sating of the ACIS detector from the radiation environment during passage through radiation belts, real-time monitoring of space weather conditions, on-board monitoring of radiation environment levels, and the creation of a radiation environment model for use in computing proton flux and fluence at energies that damage the ACIS detector. This radiation mitigation program has been very successful. The initial precipitous increase in the CCDs' charge transfer inefficiency (CTI) resulting from proton damage has been slowed dramatically, with the front-illuminated CCDS having an increase in CTI of only 2.3% per year, allowing the ASIS detector's expected lifetime to exceed requirements. This paper concentrates on one aspect of the Chandra radiation mitigation program, the creation of the Chandra Radiation Model (CRM). Because of Chandra's highly elliptical orbit, the spacecraft spends most of its time outside of the trapped radiation belts that present the severest risks to the ACIS detector. However, there is still a proton flux environment that must be accounted for in all parts of Chandra's orbit. At the time of Chandra's launch there was no engineering model of the radiation environment that could be used in the outer regions of the spacecraft's orbit, so the CRM was developed to provide the flux environment of 100 - 200 keV protons in the outer magnetosphere, magnetosheath, and solar wind regions of geospace. This presentation describes CRM, its role in Chandra operations, and its prediction of the ACIS CTI increase

Quantification of avian hazards to military aircraft and implications for wildlife management

Collisions between birds and military aircraft are common and can have catastrophic effects. Knowledge of relative wildlife hazards to aircraft (the likelihood of aircraft damage when a species is struck) is needed before estimating wildlife strike risk (combined frequency and severity component) at military airfields. Despite annual reviews of wildlife strike trends with civil aviation since the 1990s, little is known about wildlife strike trends for military aircraft. We hypothesized that species relative hazard scores would correlate positively with aircraft type and avian body mass. Only strike records identified to species that occurred within the U.S. (n = 36,979) and involved United States Navy or United States Air Force aircraft were used to calculate relative hazard scores. The most hazardous species to military aircraft was the snow goose (Anser caerulescens), followed by the common loon (Gavia immer), and a tie between Canada goose (Branta canadensis) and black vulture (Coragyps atratus). We found an association between avian body mass and relative hazard score (r2 = 0.76) for all military airframes. In general, relative hazard scores per species were higher for military than civil airframes. An important consideration is that hazard scores can vary depending on aircraft type. We found that avian body mass affected the probability of damage differentially per airframe. In the development of an airfield wildlife management plan, and absent estimates of species strike risk, airport wildlife biologists should prioritize management of species with high relative hazard scores

Wildlife in Airport Environments: Chapter 9 Managing Airport Stormwater to Reduce Attraction to Wildlife

An airport is a component of the landscape, contributing to and subject to local- and landscapelevel factors that affect wildlife populations and the hazards that these species pose to aviation (Blackwell et al. 2009, Martin et al. 2011). Water resources at and near an airport, in the form of both surface water and contained runoff, are recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as potential attractants to wildlife that pose hazards to aviation safety (FAA 2007). Surface water, including aboveground stormwater detention/retention facilities (see U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2006), can represent a substantial proportion of the area within siting criteria for U.S. airports. An analysis of water coverage at 49 certificated airports (FAA 2004) revealed that surface water composed on average 6.0% (standard deviation [SD] = 10.4%, range = 0.04-48.3%; B. F. Blackwell, unpublished data) of the area within the 3-km [lo9-mile] FAA siting criteria (X = 275 ha, SD = 511 ha). A recent analysis of bird-aircraft strike data for avian species involved in at least 50 total strikes reported to the FAA (1990-2008; summarized in FAA 2011) revealed that 13 of the 52 species (25%) have foraging and breeding ecologies primarily associated with water (Blackwell et al. 2013). Moreover, these 13 species were responsible for \u3e 51% of damaging strikes (Dolbeer et al. 2000, DeVault et al. 2011) during this period

Frontal vehicle illumination via rear-facing lighting reduces potential for collisions with white-tailed deer

nimal–vehicle collisions cause many millions of animal deaths each year worldwide and present a substantial safety risk to people. In the United States and Canada, deer (Odocoileus spp.) are involved in most animal–vehicle collisions associated with human injuries. We evaluated a vehicle-based collision mitigation method designed to decrease the likelihood of deer–vehicle collisions during low-light conditions, when most collisions occur. Specifically, we investigated whether the use of a rear-facing light, providing more complete frontal vehicle illumination than standard headlights alone, enhanced vehicle avoidance behaviors of white-tailed deer (O. virginianus). We quantified flight initiation distance (FID), the likelihood of a dangerous deer–vehicle interaction (FID ≤ 50 m), and road-crossing behavior of deer in response to an oncoming vehicle using only standard high-beam headlights and the same vehicle using headlights plus an LED light bar illuminating the frontal surface of the vehicle. We predicted that frontal vehicle illumination would enhance perceived risk of deer approached by the vehicle and lead to more effective avoidance responses. We conducted 62 vehicle approaches (31 per lighting treatment) toward free-ranging deer over ~14 months. Although FID did not differ across treatments, the likelihood of a dangerous deer–vehicle interaction decreased from 35% of vehicle approaches using only headlights to 10% of vehicle approaches using the light bar. The reduction in dangerous interactions appeared to be driven by fewer instances of immobility (freezing) behavior by deer in response to the illuminated vehicle (n = 1) compared with approaches using only headlights (n = 10). Because more deer moved in response to the illuminated vehicle, road-crossing behavior likewise increased when the light bar was on, although these road crossings primarily occurred at FIDs \u3e 50 m and thus did not increase collision risk. Road-crossing behavior was influenced heavily by proximity to concealing cover; deer only crossed when the nearest cover was located on the opposite side of the road. We contend that frontal vehicle illumination via rearfacing lighting has potential to greatly reduce vehicle collisions with deer and other species. Future work should explore fine-tuning the method with regard to the visual capabilities of target species

Quantification of avian hazards to military aircraft and implications for wildlife management

Collisions between birds and military aircraft are common and can have catastrophic effects. Knowledge of relative wildlife hazards to aircraft (the likelihood of aircraft damage when a species is struck) is needed before estimating wildlife strike risk (combined frequency and severity component) at military airfields. Despite annual reviews of wildlife strike trends with civil aviation since the 1990s, little is known about wildlife strike trends for military aircraft. We hypothesized that species relative hazard scores would correlate positively with aircraft type and avian body mass. Only strike records identified to species that occurred within the U.S. (n = 36,979) and involved United States Navy or United States Air Force aircraft were used to calculate relative hazard scores. The most hazardous species to military aircraft was the snow goose (Anser caerulescens), followed by the common loon (Gavia immer), and a tie between Canada goose (Branta canadensis) and black vulture (Coragyps atratus). We found an association between avian body mass and relative hazard score (r2 = 0.76) for all military airframes. In general, relative hazard scores per species were higher for military than civil airframes. An important consideration is that hazard scores can vary depending on aircraft type. We found that avian body mass affected the probability of damage differentially per airframe. In the development of an airfield wildlife management plan, and absent estimates of species strike risk, airport wildlife biologists should prioritize management of species with high relative hazard scores

Pronounced surface stratification of soil phosphorus, potassium and sulfur under pastures upstream of a eutrophic wetland and estuarine system

High concentrations of nutrients in surface soil present a risk of nutrient movement into waterways through surface water pathways and leaching. Phosphorus (P) is of particular concern because of its role in aquatic system eutrophication. We measured nutrients under annual pastures on a beef farm and a dairy farm in the Peel–Harvey catchment, Western Australia. Soils were sampled in 10-mm increments to 100mm depth in March, June and September. Plant litter contained approximately 300–550 mg kg–1 Colwell-extractable P. Extractable soil P was strongly stratified, being approximately 100–225 mg kg–1 (dairy) and 50–110 mg kg–1 (beef) in the top 10mm and 4mg g–1). We conclude that high P concentrations at the soil surface and in litter and shoots are a source of risk for movement of P from farms into waterways in the Peel–Harvey catchment