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Variation in Mycorrhizal Associations with Tulasnelloid Fungi among Populations of Five <em>Dactylorhiza</em> Species

<div><h3>Background</h3><p>Orchid species rely on mycorrhizal symbioses with fungi to complete their life cycle. Although there is mounting evidence that orchids can associate with several fungi from different clades or families, less is known about the actual geographic distribution of these fungi and how they are distributed across different orchid species within a genus.</p> <h3>Methodology/Principal Findings</h3><p>We investigated among-population variation in mycorrhizal associations in five species of the genus <em>Dactylorhiza</em> (<em>D. fuchsii</em>, <em>D. incarnata</em>, <em>D. maculata</em>, <em>D. majalis</em> and <em>D. praetermissa</em>) using culture-independent detection and identification techniques enabling simultaneous detection of multiple fungi in a single individual. Mycorrhizal specificity, determined as the number of fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs), and phylogenetic diversity of fungi were compared between species, whereas discriminant analysis was used to compare mycorrhizal spectra across populations and species. Based on a 95% cut-off value in internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence similarity, a total of ten OTUs was identified belonging to three different clades within the Tulasnellaceae. Most OTUs were found in two or more <em>Dactylorhiza</em> species, and some of them were common and widespread, occurring in more than 50% of all sampled populations. Each orchid species associated with at least five different OTUs, whereas most individuals also associated with two or more fungal OTUs at the same time. Phylogenetic diversity, corrected for species richness, was not significantly different between species, confirming the generality of the observed orchid mycorrhizal associations.</p> <h3>Conclusions/Significance</h3><p>We found that the investigated species of the genus <em>Dactylorhiza</em> associated with a wide range of fungal OTUs from the Tulasnellaceae, some of which were widespread and common. These findings challenge the idea that orchid rarity is related to mycorrhizal specificity and fungal distribution.</p> </div

Bayesian majority consensus tree based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of Tulasnellaceae fungi.

<p>The tree was computed under the GTR+G substitution model (5 000 000 generations run) and includes representatives of European, American, and Australian meadow and forest photosynthetic orchids, tropical terrestrial and epiphytic orchids, non-orchid species and fungal strains and fruitbodies. <i>Tulasnella tomaculum</i> and <i>Tulasnella eichleriana</i> were used as outgroup taxa. Branch support: Bayesian posterior probabilities (BPP).</p

MOESM2 of Phenotypic landscape of non-conventional yeast species for different stress tolerance traits desirable in bioethanol fermentation

Additional file 2: Table S2. Source, geographical origin and details of stress tolerance characteristics of yeast strains used in this study

The number of operational taxonomic units and phylogenetic diversity (PD) values for each sampled population of five <i>Dactylorhiza</i> species.

<p>The number of operational taxonomic units and phylogenetic diversity (PD) values for each sampled population of five <i>Dactylorhiza</i> species.</p

Neighbour-joining phylogram showing phylogenetic relationships between 16S rRNA gene sequences from <i>Pulmonaria officinalis</i> nectar-inhabiting bacteria and reference sequences of the most related type strains found in GenBank.

<p>For ease of visualization, the dataset was limited to one representative sequence (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0056917#pone-0056917-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a> and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0056917#pone-0056917-t002" target="_blank">2</a>) for each operational taxonomic unit (OTU) found in this study at a DNA dissimilarity cut-off value of 1%. Bootstrap percentages based on 1000 replications are shown at the major nodes.</p

Number of fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) per population and phylogenetic diversity (PD) corrected for species richness in five <i>Dactylorhiza</i> species.

<p>Number of fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) per population and phylogenetic diversity (PD) corrected for species richness in five <i>Dactylorhiza</i> species.</p