Frequency Value Grammar and Information Theory

I previously laid the groundwork for Frequency Value Grammar (FVG) in papers I submitted in the proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Cognitive Science (2003), Sydney Australia, and Corpus Linguistics Conference (2003), Lancaster, UK. FVG is a formal syntax theoretically based in large part on Information Theory principles. FVG relies on dynamic physical principles external to the corpus which shape and mould the corpus whereas generative grammar and other formal syntactic theories are based exclusively on patterns (fractals) found occurring within the well-formed portion of the corpus. However, FVG should not be confused with Probability Syntax, (PS), as described by Manning (2003). PS is a corpus based approach that will yield the probability distribution of possible syntax constructions over a fixed corpus. PS makes no distinction between well and ill formed sentence constructions and assumes everything found in the corpus is well formed. In contrast, FVG’s primary objective is to distinguish between well and ill formed sentence constructions and, in so doing, relies on corpus based parameters which determine sentence competency. In PS, a syntax of high probability will not necessarily yield a well formed sentence. However, in FVG, a syntax or sentence construction of high ‘frequency value’ will yield a well-formed sentence, at least, 95% of the time satisfying most empirical standards. Moreover, in FVG, a sentence construction of ‘high frequency value’ could very well be represented by an underlying syntactic construction of low probability as determined by PS. The characteristic ‘frequency values’ calculated in FVG are not measures of probability but rather are fundamentally determined values derived from exogenous principles which impact and determine corpus based parameters serving as an index of sentence competency. The theoretical framework of FVG has broad applications beyond that of formal syntax and NLP. In this paper, I will demonstrate how FVG can be used as a model for improving the upper bound calculation of entropy of written English. Generally speaking, when a function word precedes an open class word, the backward n-gram analysis will be homomorphic with the information source and will result in frequency values more representative of co-occurrences in the information source

PROCESS OF TEACHING VOCABULARY TO THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS IN SD NEGERI KARTASURA 02

This final project was written based on the job training in SD Negeri Kartasura 02. The aims of this final project are to describe the process of teaching vocabulary to the first grade students in SD Negeri Kartasura 02, to show the problems faced by the students and the writer and also to give the solutions for the problems. The writer wrote this final project based on the data collected by observing the class and teaching the first grade students in SD Negeri Kartasura 02. The observation was done in the class to know how the class condition and how the teachers teaches. The process of teaching consists of motivating strategies, presentation strategies, skill practice, assessment and ending the lessons. The material of teaching English vocabulary is taken from Active English 1 for Grade I of Elementary School. Based on the discussion, the writer found the problems during the process of teaching vocabulary to the first grade students in SD Negeri Kartasura 02. The problem were the condition of the students and students’ problem in writing English. The writer also gave the solution to solve the problems namely trying to make the class more relax and enjoyable, trying to explain not in rush, teaching the vocabulary by reading in order to introduce the words and the letters to the students, asking the students to make notes in their notebook, using some pictures to make the students more easier to remember the letters of the words

Mechanical behavior of osteoporotic bone at sub-lamellar length scales

Osteoporosis is a disease known to promote bone fragility but the effect on the mechanical properties of bone material, which is independent of geometric effects, is particularly unclear. To address this problem, micro-beams of osteoporotic bone were prepared using focused ion beam (FIB) microscopy and mechanically tested in compression using an atomic force microscope (AFM) while observing using in situ electron microscopy. This experimental approach was shown to be effective at measuring the subtle changes in the mechanical properties of bone material required to evaluate the effects of osteoporosis. Osteoporotic bone material was found to have lower elastic modulus and increased strain to failure when compared to healthy bone material, while the strength of osteoporotic and healthy bone was similar. A mechanism is suggested based on these results and previous literature that indicates degradation of the organic material in osteoporosis bone is responsible for resultant mechanical properties