Pendekatan Qspm Sebagai Dasar Perumusan Strategi Peningkatan Pendapatan Asli Daerah Kabupaten Batang, Jawa Tengah

The aim of this research is to analyse of increasing Local Original Income (LOI) strategy and his influence to increasing the regional income. The research was done at Local Government Income of Batang regency. This research also want to know that the LOI strategy was based on the potencies and opportunities. The analyzing use the IFE, EFE, SWOT, and then QSPM to choose strategic formulation; and proportion models. The result of Internal – External analysis show that increasing strategy of LOI have not based on the potencies and opportunities that they have yet. The Local Government Income of Batang Regency needs the intensification strategy for increasing the LOI. By the QSPM analysis, the Local Government Income of Batang Regency needs extensification strategy for LOI acceptance

Determination of Fast Electrode Kinetics Facilitated by Use of an Internal Reference

The concept of using an internal reversible reference process as a calibration in the determination of fast electrode kinetics has been developed and applied with the technique of Fourier transformed large amplitude ac voltammetry to minimize the influence of errors arising from uncertainties in parameters such as electrode area (<i>A</i>), concentration (<i>C</i>), diffusion coefficient (<i>D</i>), and uncompensated resistance (<i>R</i>_u). Since kinetic parameters (electron transfer rate constant, <i>k</i>⁰, and electron transfer coefficient, α) are irrelevant in the voltammetric characterization of a reversible reaction, parameters such as <i>A</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, and <i>R</i>_u can be calibrated using the reversible process prior to quantification of the electrode kinetics associated with the fast quasi-reversible process. If required, new values of parameters derived from the calibration exercise can be used for the final determination of <i>k</i>⁰ and α associated with the process of interest through theory-experimental comparison exercises. Reference to the reversible process is of greatest significance in diminishing the potentially large impact of systematic errors on the measurement of electrode kinetics near the reversible limit. Application of this method is demonstrated with respect to the oxidation of tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), where the TTF^0/•+ process is used as a reversible internal reference for the measurement of the quasi-reversible kinetics of the TTF^•+/2+ process. The more generalized concept is demonstrated by use of the Fc^0/+ (Fc = ferrocene) reversible process as an internal reference for measurement of the kinetics of the Cc^+/0 (Cc⁺ = cobaltocenium) process. Via the internal reversible reference approach, a <i>k</i>⁰ value of 0.55 cm s^–1 was obtained for the TTF^•+/2+ process at a glassy carbon electrode and 2.7 cm s^–1 for the Cc^+/0 one at a carbon fiber microelectrode in acetonitrile (0.1 M Bu₄NPF₆)

Investigations of Fast Electrode Kinetics for Reduction of 2,3,5,6-Tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane in Conventional Solvents and Ionic Liquids Using Fourier Transformed Large Amplitude Alternating Current Voltammetry

Fourier transformed large amplitude alternating current voltammetry has been used under high frequency (up to 1.233 kHz) conditions to probe the fast electron transfer kinetics associated with the reduction of 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F₄TCNQ) in the molecular solvents acetonitrile and dimethylsulfoxide at glassy carbon, platinum, gold and boron doped diamond macrodisk electrodes and in ionic liquids (ILs) at carbon fiber and platinum microdisk electrodes. The limitations encountered with measurements under high frequency conditions are discussed in detail. Electrode kinetic data obtained for the F₄TCNQ^0/•– process in the molecular solvents (0.060–1.0 cm s^–1) are compared with results found in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate, 1-butyl-1-methylpiperidinium bis­(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)­imide, and 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis­(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)­imide ionic liquids (0.0030–0.10 cm s^–1). The effect of solvent viscosity ranging from 0.30 to 371 cP on mass transport is substantial. The influences of the electrode material and structure of the cation of the ionic liquid on the electrode kinetics also have been established

Dual-Frequency Alternating Current Designer Waveform for Reliable Voltammetric Determination of Electrode Kinetics Approaching the Reversible Limit

Alternating current (ac) voltammetry provides access to faster electrode kinetics than direct current (dc) methods. However, difficulties in ac and other methods arise when the heterogeneous electron-transfer rate constant (<i>k</i>⁰) approaches the reversible limit, because the voltammetric characteristics become insensitive to electrode kinetics. Thus, in this near-reversible regime, even small uncertainties associated with bulk concentration (<i>C</i>), diffusion coefficient (<i>D</i>), electrode area (<i>A</i>), and uncompensated resistance (<i>R</i>_u) can lead to significant systematic error in the determination of <i>k</i>⁰. In this study, we have introduced a kinetically sensitive dual-frequency designer waveform into the Fourier-transformed large-amplitude alternating current (FTAC) voltammetric method that is made up of two sine waves having the same amplitude but with different frequencies (e.g., 37 and 615 Hz) superimposed onto a dc ramp to quantify the close-to-reversible Fc^0/+ process (Fc = ferrocene) in two nonhaloaluminate ionic liquids. The concept is that from a single experiment the lower-frequency data set, collected on a time scale where the target process is reversible, can be used as an internal reference to calibrate <i>A</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>R</i>_u. These calibrated values are then used to calculate <i>k</i>⁰ from analysis of the harmonics of the higher-frequency data set, where the target process is quasi-reversible. With this approach, <i>k</i>⁰ values of 0.28 and 0.11 cm·s^–1 have been obtained at a 50 μm diameter platinum microdisk electrode for the close-to-diffusion-controlled Fc^0/+ process in two ionic liquids, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis­(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)­imide and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis­(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)­imide, respectively

Is the Imidazolium Cation a Unique Promoter for Electrocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide?

There has been considerable recent interest in the use of the imidazolium cation as a promoter in the heterogeneous and homogeneous electrocatalysis of CO₂ reduction. However, despite its widespread use for this purpose, the mechanism by which imidazolium operates is not yet fully established. The present work reveals that enhanced catalytic activity is achieved by addition of many cations other than imidazolium. Under cyclic voltammetric conditions at a Ag electrode in acetonitrile solutions (0.1 M <i>n</i>-Bu₄NPF₆), 2.0 mM concentrations of imidazolium, pyrrolidium, ammonium, phosphonium, and (trimethylamine)-(dimethylethylamine)-dihydroborate cations can all enhance the kinetics of catalytic CO₂ reduction with imidazolium and pyrrolidium being the most active. Analysis of the voltammetric data suggests that imidazolium cations achieve their impact by directly acting as cocatalysts with Ag whereas the other cations affect the reaction rate by modifying the electrochemical double layer. The results also confirm that the active form of the cocatalyst is the reduced imidazolium radical which forms a complex with CO₂ before being further reduced to CO or other products at Ag and not an imidazolium carboxylate formed between an imidazolium carbene and CO₂. In fact, imidazolium is deactivated during CO₂ reduction by the latter reaction. Addition of water inhibits this deactivation pathway allowing the imidazolium cation to remain active in a long-term for CO₂ reduction. In contrast, the pyrrolidium cation, where enhanced catalysis is attributed to an electrochemical double layer effect, retains its catalytic activity for very long periods of time regardless of the presence or absence of water

Mass-Transport and Heterogeneous Electron-Transfer Kinetics Associated with the Ferrocene/Ferrocenium Process in Ionic Liquids

The ferrocene/ferrocenium (Fc^0/+) redox couple is regarded as a kinetically facile process under voltammetric conditions. It also possesses a nearly “solvent independent” formal potential, and for this reason is commonly used as a “reference” redox system for electrochemical studies in nonaqueous electrolyte media. Fc^0/+ has also been adopted as a “model system” in ionic liquid (IL) media, although conflicting reports on the mass-transport and kinetics have brought its “ideality” into question. In this study, the mass-transport and heterogeneous electron-transfer kinetics associated with the Fc^0/+ process at a platinum electrode are reported in 14 ILs with dynamic viscosities (η) ranging from 20 to 620 cP. The diffusivity of Fc (<i>D</i>_Fc) was calculated in each of the ILs using convolution voltammetry and was found to be inversely proportional to the viscosity of the medium, as per the Stokes–Einstein relation (i.e., <i>D</i> ∝ 1/η). The heterogeneous electron-transfer rate constant (<i>k</i>⁰) associated with the Fc^0/+ process was measured in each of the ILs using large-amplitude Fourier transformed alternating current (FTAC) voltammetry, and a plot of ln­(<i>k</i>⁰) versus ln­(η) was found to be linear, with a slope of −1.0, as predicted by the Marcus theory of electron transfer for an adiabatic process that involves predominantly solvent reorganization rather than inner-shell vibrations. Analysis of the ln­(<i>k</i>⁰) versus ln­(η) data suggests a slight dependence of <i>k</i>⁰ on the constituent anion of the IL, which is thought to arise due to electrostatic interactions between the anion and positively charged Fc⁺. Finally, extrapolating the <i>D</i> versus 1/η and ln­(<i>k</i>⁰) versus ln­(η) plots to η values typically encountered in acetonitrile-based electrolyte media (i.e., 0.5 cP) predicts <i>D</i> and <i>k</i>⁰ values of approximately 2 × 10^–5 cm² s^–1 and 10 cm s^–1, in excellent agreement with literature reports. Overall, the results presented in this study strongly suggest that the Fc^0/+ redox couple displays the characteristics of an “ideal” outer-sphere electron transfer process in IL media

Parameterization of Water Electrooxidation Catalyzed by Metal Oxides Using Fourier Transformed Alternating Current Voltammetry

Detection and quantification of redox transformations involved in water oxidation electrocatalysis is often not possible using conventional techniques. Herein, use of large amplitude Fourier transformed ac voltammetry and comprehensive analysis of the higher harmonics has enabled us to access the redox processes responsible for catalysis. An examination of the voltammetric data for water oxidation in borate buffered solutions (pH 9.2) at electrodes functionalized with systematically varied low loadings of cobalt (CoO_<i>x</i>), manganese (MnO_<i>x</i>), and nickel oxides (NiO_<i>x</i>) has been undertaken, and extensive experiment-simulation comparisons have been introduced for the first time. Analysis shows that a single redox process controls the rate of catalysis for Co and Mn oxides, while two electron transfer events contribute in the Ni case. We apply a “molecular catalysis” model that couples a redox transformation of a surface-confined species (effective reversible potential, <i>E</i>_eff⁰) to a catalytic reaction with a substrate in solution (pseudo-first-order rate constant, <i>k</i>₁^f), accounts for the important role of a Brønsted base, and mimics the experimental behavior. The analysis revealed that <i>E</i>_eff⁰ values for CoO_<i>x</i>, MnO_<i>x</i>, and NiO_<i>x</i> lie within the range 1.9–2.1 V vs reversible hydrogen electrode, and <i>k</i>₁^f varies from 2 × 10³ to 4 × 10⁴ s^–1. The <i>k</i>₁^f values are much higher than reported for any water electrooxidation catalyst before. The <i>E</i>_eff⁰ values provide a guide for in situ spectroscopic characterization of the active states involved in catalysis by metal oxides

Simplifying the Evaluation of Graphene Modified Electrode Performance Using Rotating Disk Electrode Voltammetry

Graphene modified electrodes have been fabricated by electrodeposition from an aqueous graphene oxide solution onto conducting Pt, Au, glassy carbon, and indium tin dioxide substrates. Detailed investigations of the electrochemistry of the [Ru­(NH₃)₆]^3+/2+ and [Fe­(CN)₆]^3‑/4‑ and hydroquinone and uric acid oxidation processes have been undertaken at glassy carbon and graphene modified glassy carbon electrodes using transient cyclic voltammetry at a stationary electrode and near steady-state voltammetry at a rotating disk electrode. Comparisons of the data with simulation suggest that the transient voltammetric characteristics at graphene modified electrodes contain a significant contribution from thin layer and surface confined processes. Consequently, interpretations based solely on mass transport by semi-infinite linear diffusion may result in incorrect conclusions on the activity of the graphene modified electrode. In contrast, steady-state voltammetry at a rotating disk electrode affords a much simpler method for the evaluation of the performance of graphene modified electrode since the relative importance of the thin layer and surface confined processes are substantially diminished and mass transport is dominated by convection. Application of the rotated electrode approach with carbon nanotube modified electrodes also should lead to simplification of data analysis in this environment

Double-Layer Capacitance at Ionic Liquid–Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode Interfaces Studied by Fourier Transformed Alternating Current Voltammetry

This article reports the electrochemical double layer behavior at the interfaces of ionic liquids (ILs) and a boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode as measured by large-amplitude Fourier transformed alternating current (AC) voltammetry (FT-ACV). Data are collected over a ≥2 V potential range and fitted to a simple resistor–capacitor circuit model. The absence of significant higher-order AC harmonic components implies nearly ideal capacitive behavior in the potential ranges examined. Capacitance values for two protic ILs and three aprotic ILs range from 3 to 8 μF cm^–2 and generally increase (1–2 μF cm^–2 V^–1) as the potential is swept from negative to positive values. Capacitance–potential data display little dependence on the composition of the IL. The generally featureless, linear dependence of capacitance on potential over a wide potential range is similar to that reported for BDD electrodes in aqueous electrolyte media, suggesting that the BDD electrode is largely insensitive to the nature of the electrolyte media. The present study concludes that FT-ACV affords an efficient approach to probe the IL–electrode interface, with minimal capacitive hysteresis based on the potential scanning direction