Antimicrobial properties of Euphorbia hirta crude extract

Antimicrobial effects from the extracted whole plant of Euphorbia hirta were studied against several Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Water and petroleum ether fraction of the extract have been isolated by using the soxhet extraction method. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) tests were done to determine the minimum concentration of the crude extract that can inhibit bacterial growth. The minimum inhibitory concentration of both extract are 25.00 mg/ml (water extract) and 0.025 mg/ml (petroleum ether extract) respectively. Agar diffusion test was also done by impregnating different concentration of the water extract- 100 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 25 mg/ml and the petroleum ether extract- 0.1 mg/ml, 0.05 mg/ml, 0.025 mg/ml respectively onto the standard blank disc. Significant inhibition zone were observed with 0.1 mg/ml of petroleum ether fraction against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) and Staphylococcus epidermidis on a nutrient agar plates. However, no inhibition zones were observed against the Gram negative bacterial plates consisted of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) and Salmonella sp. for both extracts. This result however, primarily validates that the petroleum ether Euphorbia hirta crude extract has shown to be a promising effective antibacterial agents against certain Gram positive bacteria

Evolution of the “ancient Kedah”: A study on urban forms at Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex (SBAC), Bujang Valley, Kedah, Malaysia

Archaeological research at the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex (SBAC), which has been carried out until 2023, aims to complete the chronological data and urbanization process of the ancient Kedah. This study will especially prove that the ongoing urbanization process is aimed at developing the iron smelting industry and trade in ancient Kedah, especially in SBAC. This is because archaeological research at SBAC has proven that with the existence of the ancient Kedah iron smelting workshop at SBAC, river jetties, port management, rituals, and Buddhist monuments began to be erected, all of which can be determined by chronometric dating. The results of the chronometric dating have proven that the ancient Kedah Kingdom existed since the 6th century BC and was oriented towards the trade of iron resources, which allowed the use of the area to grow rapidly. The process of urbanization and land use clearly conforms to Lynch's principle, which emphasizes the principles of 1) paths, 2) edges, 3) districts, 4) nodes, and 5) landmarks in the development process of land use and urbanization in the complex

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis of iron ore at ancient Kedah iron smelting site, Sungai Batu archaeological complex, Bujang Valley, Kedah, Malaysia

Archaeological excavations carried out on 17 iron smelting workshops at the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex have found the raw materials of iron industry (hematite, magnetite and geotite) with iron slag, tuyere, remains of furnace, and iron ingots. In order to obtain primary data related to the location of the raw materials of iron smelting obtained, the survey and mapping activities were carried out using geological maps and Sungai Petani maps around UiTM Merbok, Bukit Inas, Merbok, Batu 5 Village, Paya Suri Village and Ayer Nasi Hill, Semeling. The results of the iron ore survey were then subjected to scientific analysis to compare the mineral composition with the findings of iron ore at the iron smelting site. The results of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis of iron ore for major elements reveal the elements silica oxide (SiO₂), iron oxide (FeO₊), manganese oxide (MnO), calcium oxide (CaO), aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) and titanium oxide (TiO₂) as well as arsenic (As), Chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), scandium (S), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn) for trace elements clearly show the raw material of iron smelting in the Archaeological Complex Sungai Batu is from the same source. Based on the analysis of the raw materials of iron smelting to enable the iron smelting industry in the Archaeological Complex to take place is taken from a distance of 1–11 km from this complex

Friedel–Crafts benzylation of toluene catalyzed by ZnCl2/SiO2 heterogeneous catalyst to para- and ortho-monobenzylated toluene

A series of catalysts was prepared for the liquid-phase Friedel–Crafts benzylation of toluene with benzyl chloride (BC) by impregnating rice husk ash silica with ZnCl2 (3 wt%, 6 wt%, 9 wt%, and 12 wt%) via a wet impregnation method. The XRD analysis indicates that the catalysts were amorphous with ill-defined pore systems. The XPS analysis detected the coexistence of ZnO nanoparticles together with ZnCl2 on the catalyst surface, whereas the 29Si NMR analysis indicates the formation of Si–O–Zn bond. Quantitative conversion of benzyl chloride (100%) was achieved within 3 h at 353 K when a catalyst with 9 wt% ZnCl2 was used due to its narrow pore size and high surface area (635 m2 g−1). Para- and ortho-mono-benzylated toluene was obtained as the products. The reaction is proposed to take place via weak attraction between benzyl chloride and the Zn through its chlorine atom. The catalyst was recycled four times with minimum loss (8%) in activity. The benzylation of benzene, toluene, p-xylene, and anisole followed the classical mechanism of Friedel–Craft-type acid-catalyzed benzylation reaction. The BC conversion increased in the order of toluene = p-xylene > anisole > benzene. The catalyst was also screened to be active in the benzoylation of toluene with benzoyl chloride (BOC). The conversion of BOC was 45% with selectivity toward 2-methylbenzophenone (50%) and 3-methylbenzophenone (50%