Effect of plyometric training on sand versus grass on muscle soreness and selected sport-specific performance variables in hockey players

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a 4-week plyometric training on two different surfaces, sand and grass on muscle soreness and selected sport-specific performance variables in national level hockey players. Subjects were randomly divided into two groups- grass training group (N=20) and sand training group (N=20). After the baseline measurements of strength, endurance, balance, and agility, plyometric training was given for 4-weeks,three sessions per week. Muscle soreness was assessed at the end of each training session on a 7-point likert scale.Post-readings of strength, endurance, balance and agility were taken after the 4-week training programme. Data when compared after plyometric training revealed no significant changes between two groups (p>0.05), however players in the sand group experienced less muscle soreness (p<0.05) than grass group. There was significant improvement (p<0.05) seen in the tested variables in both groups after the training but no significant interaction was found between the two surfaces after the training. These findings suggest that short-term plyometric training on sand/non-rigid surface induces similar improvements in strength, endurance, balance and agility as on firm surface but induces significantly less muscle soreness. Hence, plyometric training on sand is viable option for coaches to enhance performance in athletes, while reducing risk of muscle soreness and damage

The Effects of High Volume Aquatic Plyometric Training on Vertical Jump, Muscle Power, and Torque

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of high volume aquatic-based plyometrics versus lower volume land and aquatic plyometric training on vertical jump (VJ), muscular peak power and torque in the dominant knee. Thirty-nine adult participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: aquatic group 1 (APT1), aquatic group 2 (APT2), land group (LPT1), and control group (CON). All groups performed a 6-week plyometric training program. The APT1 and LPT performed the same volume of training where, APT2 doubled the volume. All participants were pre- and post-tested on performance variables. A 4 (group) X 2 (time) ANOVA with repeated measures was used to determine differences between the performance variables. We found no significant differences between groups for all tested variables. However, APT2 showed the greatest increased average in the performance variables. The high volume aquatic plyometric protocol is useful to help increase performance and minimize muscle soreness

Comparative Effects of Eccentric Overload Training On Muscle Function Measures When Combined With Aquatic Plyometric Training

Although there is a growing body of knowledge on eccentric resistance training and aquatic plyometric training on muscle function measures alone, no research to date has investigated the effects of a mixed training model. Aquatic plyometrics and overload eccentric training are two different training models which could work synergistically because the shortcomings of one model are the virtues of the other (i.e., plyometrics are not as effective at producing large muscle size and strength gains and eccentric-only training largely lacks the functional SSC component). The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the effects of a combined eccentric overload and aquatic-based plyometric training program on muscle function, sport-specific performance measures, and soreness versus an eccentric-only training protocol. Twenty-five participants were randomized into either an eccentric-only training group (ECC) or a combined eccentric and aquatic plyometric group (AQP) and participated in a 6-week training intervention. The ECC group performed eccentric training on a motor-driven isokinetic dynamometer (Eccentron) once a week for 3 minutes while the AQP group performed the same eccentric training once a week with an additional aquatic plyometric training session. Isokinetic eccentric strength, isometric strength, depth jump height, countermovement jump height, and sprint time were taken pre and post training. Muscle soreness was taken weekly throughout the training. There was no significant group × trial interactions for any of the variables indicating that combined eccentric and aquatic plyometric training did not increase muscle function measures more than eccentric training alone. The training elicited a significantly large improvement in isokinetic eccentric strength in both ECC (27%; ES = 1.33) and AQP (17%; ES = .86) groups. Isometric strength improved moderately for ECC and AQP groups (17.2%, ES = .53; 9%, ES = .45). A moderate effect was observed for depth jump height improvement for both ECC and AQP groups (13.1%, ES = .48; 8.8%, ES = .36). No significant changes were observed for countermovement jump or sprint time. However a moderate, though not significant, effect was found for 5-m sprint time in the ECC group (ES = .52). Muscle soreness did not significantly differ between groups but was considerably less than previous studies (8-10 mm vs. 20-30 mm). In conclusion, minimal dose multi-joint eccentric overload training significantly improved maximal eccentric strength, isometric peak force, and depth jump height after 6 weeks regardless of the training condition (ECC vs. AQP)

A Comparison of Aquatic- vs. Land-Based Plyometrics on Various Performance Variables

International Journal of Exercise Science 8(2) : 134-144, 2015. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an aquatic- (W) and land-based (L) plyometric program on balance, vertical jump height, and isokinetic quadriceps and hamstring strength. Thirty-four participants were randomized into three groups, W (n = 12), L (n = 11), and control (n = 11). The W and L groups completed an eight-week plyometric program. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of condition (F = 346.95, p \u3c 0.001) and interaction between condition by time (F = 1.88, p = 0.01). Paired samples t-tests revealed statistically significant improvements from pre- to post-testing in the L group for isokinetic quadriceps strength at 60 degrees per second (p = 0.02) and hamstring strength at 120 degrees per second (p = 0.02). Statistically significant improvements were observed from pre- to post-testing in the W group for balance (p = 0.003), vertical jump height (p = 0.008), isokinetic quadriceps strength at 60 and 120 degrees per second (p \u3c 0.001), and hamstring strength at 120 degrees per second (p = 0.03). Results demonstrate that aquatic-based plyometric training can be a valid form of training by producing improvements in balance, force output, and isokinetic strength while concurrently decreasing ground impact forces

Effect of plyometric training on athletic performance in preadolescent soccer players

The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of plyometric training on performance of preadolescent soccer players. 21 players assigned to two groups: jumping-group (JG, n = 11) and control-group (CG, n = 10). Training program was performed for 10 weeks. Anaerobic power performances were assessed by using standing long jump (SLJ), 10 m and 30 m sprint. In the JG the performance at the long jump was increased significantly (P = 0.031). Also the performance of JG increased at 30m sprint running by 7.2 % (P < 0.001). None of the variables tested in the CG demonstrated difference between the pre-test and the post-test. Our results indicate that plyometric training can improve running performance at 30 m sprint and the performance at standing long jump in preadolescent soccer players

Effects of Aquatic and Land Plyometrics on Athletic Performance: A Systematic Review

The purpose of this study was to systematically review literature to determine whether aquatic plyometric training (APT) increases athletic performance compared to land-based plyometric training (LPT). We identified 6 articles from PubMed, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and single-citation matching from January, 1995 through January, 2017 using search words “aquatic plyometric training OR aquatic plyometric OR aquatic plyometrics.” After screening (title, abstract), 6 articles were reviewed for inclusion criteria: (1) full-report/abstract, (2) peer-reviewed RCTs/clinical trials, (3) English language, (4) focused on healthy individuals (free of current, lower-extremity, musculoskeletal injuries) ages 16-30 years, and (6) included strength, power, and/or vertical jump [VJ] dependent variables. Six (of 6) studies met inclusion criteria (LOE, 1b = 6; PEDro score = 6.3±0.3). Reported pooled sample size was 182, mean age 22.46±3.67 (range 17-27). Studies found significant (p\u3e.05) performance increases in the LPT and APT groups, with no significant (p\u3e.05) differences in the amount of performance increase between experimental groups. Results demonstrated both LPT and APT can improve measures of athletic performance; however, neither appears to produce significantly better performance than the other

Effects of Flywheel Resistance Training on Muscle Function and Sport-Specific Performance in Collegiate Club Water Polo Players

Flywheel training has been shown to be beneficial for improving a multitude of muscle function and performance parameters, but its short-term training effects on athletic performance have yet to be established. PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of four weeks of flywheel squat training on lower body muscle function adaptations and sport-specific performance in collegiate club water polo players. METHODS: Thirteen men and women who participated in collegiate club water polo performed flywheel squat training twice a week for four weeks. Isokinetic knee extension peak power (PP) and peak torque (PT), flywheel squat peak power (FPP) and mean power (FMP), countermovement jump (CMJ), in-water jump height (WJH) and foot speed were assessed at Pre1 (0 weeks), Pre2 (4 weeks), and Post (8 weeks). Throughout the training period, muscle soreness was assessed with a visual analog scale every session, and FPP and FMP were assessed during sessions 2, 4, 6, and 8. RESULTS: Isokinetic PP (ES = .65) and PT (ES = .67) increased significantly from Pre1 to Post, and FPP and FMP increased between Pre2 and Post (ES = 1.1, 1.0 respectively), and Pre1 and Post (ES = .79, .82). CMJ and foot speed were not changed, and WJH displayed a significant change between Pre1 and Post (ES = 0.4). FPP increased 19% from session 2 to 4 and FMP increased 27% from session 2 to 6, and each remained elevated through session 8. Muscle soreness peaked at session 2 but tapered off by session 3. CONCLUSIONS: Four weeks of flywheel squat training in collegiate club water polo players elicited large gains (47-52%, Effect Size = ~1.0) in flywheel specific squat power, but did not influence sport-specific performance measures including CMJ, WJH, and foot speed. Water-based exercises and stretch-shortening cycle movements (plyometrics) in combination with effective resistance training programs, including flywheel-based training, are likely needed for marked sport skill improvements, along with longer-term training studies

Effects of Eccentric Overload Training When Combined With Aquatic Plyometric Training on Muscle Function Measures

Previous research done at Utah State using a novel training machine, the Eccentron, has shown large improvements in muscular strength compared to traditional resistance training in a time and energy-efficient manner. This type of training could be beneficial for clinicians looking for a modality that can elicit rapid and large strength increases in populations that may not tolerate traditional resistance training. The strength gains made from the Eccentron did not transfer to vertical jump height or sprint speed indicating limited use for training the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). SSC is a critical contributor to functional and sport performance measures and is best trained using plyometric exercise. Both plyometric exercise and eccentric overload training have the potential for a high degree of muscle soreness and may interfere with one another if performed concurrently. Aquatic plyometrics has been shown to elicit similar improvements in SSC performance with decreased levels of muscle soreness. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the effects of a combined eccentric overload and aquatic-based plyometric training program on muscle function and sport-specific performance measures versus an eccentric-only training protocol.Twenty-six recreationally active, college-aged adults participated in this study and were randomized into one of two groups: eccentric-only training (n = 13) and combined eccentric plus aquatic plyometric training (n = 13). The eccentric-only group participated in one, 5-minute Eccentron workout weekly for 6 weeks, and the combined group participated in the same Eccentron workout with an added plyometric training in the pool once a week for 6 weeks. Participants were tested pre and post-training for depth jump height, maximal eccentric strength, and isometric peak force.Preliminary results show that both groups significantly improved from pre to post-testing in maximal eccentric strength (p = .001) with a large effect size (d = 1.08). Depth jump showed a significant increase in jump height from pre to post-training when collapsed across groups (p = .001). Isometric peak force also showed a significant main effect for both group and trial when collapsed across groups (p = .004; p = .04). None of the mentioned variables had a significant group x trial interaction indicating that a mixed training protocol of aquatic plyometrics and eccentric overload training was not more effective at improving muscle function than an eccentric-only program. Although these results indicate that aquatic plyometric training may not interfere with strength gains when performed concurrently with eccentric overload training. These results also indicate that training the eccentric portion of the SSC may be more important for jump height improvement

Comparison of Propulsive Power During Loaded Countermovement Jumps Performed in Water versus Land in College Aged Males

As use of an aquatic environment increases as a training and rehabilitative tool, the purpose of this study was to assess peak propulsive power in loaded countermovement jumps (CMJ) in water and compare them to loaded CMJ on land. 20 college aged (24.6±3.6 years) recreationally active males performed 4 randomized countermovement jumps on a force plate with increasing loads (bodyweight [BW], BW+10%, BW+20%, BW+30%) in two environments: immersed in water at the xiphoid process and on land. Peak power (PP) and mean power (MP) normalized to apparent mass were assessed for all jumps. A 2 (environment) by 4 (load) repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine main effects and the interaction. PP was greater in the water for all loading conditions compared to land (13.1±3.4, 12.3±3.6, 10.4±3.4, 9.9±3.1 kW vs 5.8±1.4, 5.7±1.4, 5.8±1.4, 5.9±1.4 kW) for the BW, BW+10%, BW+20% and BW+30% conditions, respectively. The same trend and magnitude differences were identified for MP (5.5±1.7, 5.2±2, 4.4±1.5, 4.1±1.6 kW vs 2.6±0.8, 2.4±0.8, 2.5±0.8, 2.5±0.7 kW) for water vs land, respectively. The trend for decrease in PP and MP in water was significant while there were no significant trends for decreases in PP and MP on land. These results suggest loading BW on land in the range of 10-30% essentially has no detrimental impact on PP and MP measures yet creates a significant reduction when performed in water. Potential decreases in force production and/or movement velocities during takeoff may account for these observed differences due to environment. Further research could identify these differences and provide valuable insights for strength and conditioning professionals to use an aquatic environment to complement traditional land-based training

GROUND REACTION FORCES OF VARIATIONS OF PLYOMETRIC EXERCISES ON HARD SURFACES, PADDED SURFACES AND IN WATER

Subjects performed drop jumps from 46 cm, a single leg jump, counter movement jump, and squat jump on a hard surface, wrestling mat and in water. Ground reaction force data obtained via a force platform were used to determine the time to takeoff, takeoff peak ground reaction force, power, jump height, and landing peak ground reaction force. A one way repeated measures ANOVA demonstrated differences between plyometic exercises assessed for all of the variables assessed (P &#8804; 0.05), with post hoc analysis demonstrating the specific differences. Results indicate that the hard surface and mat conditions were similar for almost all of the plyometric exercises assessed for most outcome variables whereas the plyometric exercises performed in water were different than those performed on the hard surface or mat in most cases