Multiple tumor suppressors regulate a HIF-dependent negative feedback loop via ISGF3 in human clear cell renal cancer.

Whereas VHL inactivation is a primary event in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), the precise mechanism(s) of how this interacts with the secondary mutations in tumor suppressor genes, including PBRM1, KDM5C/JARID1C, SETD2, and/or BAP1, remains unclear. Gene expression analyses reveal that VHL, PBRM1, or KDM5C share a common regulation of interferon response expression signature. Loss of HIF2α, PBRM1, or KDM5C in VHL-/-cells reduces the expression of interferon stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), a transcription factor that regulates the interferon signature. Moreover, loss of SETD2 or BAP1 also reduces the ISGF3 level. Finally, ISGF3 is strongly tumor-suppressive in a xenograft model as its loss significantly enhances tumor growth. Conversely, reactivation of ISGF3 retards tumor growth by PBRM1-deficient ccRCC cells. Thus after VHL inactivation, HIF induces ISGF3, which is reversed by the loss of secondary tumor suppressors, suggesting that this is a key negative feedback loop in ccRCC. © 2018, Liao et al

Viral modulation of interferon (IFN) responses to african swine fever virus (ASFV)

Tese de mestrado. Biologia (Biologia Humana e Ambiente). Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2011A imunidade inata constitui a primeira resposta dada por um hospedeiro quando atacado por agentes patogénicos. A resposta imune baseia-se em genes codificados na linha germinativa, chamados receptores de reconhecimento de padrões (PRRs). Estes conseguem distinguir o “Eu” do “não-Eu”, reconhecendo padrões moleculares conservados ao longo da evolução dos vários agentes patogénicos, chamados padrões moleculares associados a agentes patogénicos (PAMPs). No caso dos vírus, um parasita intracelular obrigatório, os PAMPs mais importantes e mais estudados são o seu material genético, tal como o DNA genómico viral, RNA de cadeia dupla (ds) ou simples (ss) ou a estrutura RNA viral, 5’- trisfosfato-RNA. Existem vários PRRs, que podem ser agrupados em classes: os receptores transmembranares do tipo Toll (TLRs), os receptores citoplasmáticos do tipo RIG-I (RLRs), os receptores do tipo Nod (NLRs) e os receptores do tipo AIM2 (ALRs). Os PRRs iniciam uma sinalização em cascata que culmina com a activação de factores de transcrição, que entre outros, vão induzir a produção e excreção duma citoquina, o interferão (IFN). Este grupo de citoquinas é composto por três classes, IFN tipo I (p.e IFN-α/β) , tipo II (p.e IFN-γ) ou do tipo III (p.e. IFN-λ). O IFN pode despoletar variados efeitos anti-virais. A cascata de sinalização estimulada pelo IFN inicia-se com a ligação do IFN ao seu respectivo receptor extra celular que ,através de fosforilações, permite a activação de receptores intracelulares. Já no interior da célula, sinalizadores de transdução e ativadores da transcrição (STATs) são recrutados e fosforilados, o que permite a formação de homo ou heterodímeros que migram para o núcleo. No núcleo, as STATs ligam-se a zonas promotoras de genes estimulados pelo IFN (ISGs), para promover a transcrição de mais de 300 ISGs com propriedades anti-virais. No caso do estímulo causado por IFN do tipo I, os complexos formados pelas STATs vão ligar-se ao elemento de resposta estimulado pelo IFN (ISRE). No caso do IFNs do tipo II, os complexos ligam-se à sequência activada pelo IFN-λ (GAS). Os ISGs facultam ao hospedeiro diversas estratégias para combater a infeção viral. Apesar de os mamíferos possuírem um sistema imune bastante evoluído, os vírus também têm evoluído estratégias para evitar e/ou manipular as defesas do hospedeiro, dedicando uma parte substancial do seu genoma a estas estratégias. Estas podem ir desde uma interferência global na expressão e/ou síntese de proteínas das células do hospedeiro, ou serem mais específicas, diminuindo o impacto dos IFNs. O estudo destas interações, pode não só ser útil para conhecer os mecanismos de infecção do vírus, mas também para perceber melhor os mecanismos de defesa do hospedeiro. Estes conhecimentos podem permitir o desenvolvimento de terapias e tratamentos anti-virais ou mesmo anticancerígenos. A peste suína africana (ASF) é uma doença que nos porcos domésticos (Sus sacrofa) é tipicamente hemorrágica e leva normalmente à morte do hospedeiro. Contudo, as infecções são assintomáticas nos hospedeiros naturais, o javali, o porco selvagem e a carraça, sendo esta última, um dos principais vectores de transmissão do vírus da peste suína africana (ASFV), tornando o seu controlo difícil sem uma vacina. Nos últimos anos, devido ao grande desenvolvimento urbano e consumo de carne de porco, têm havido surtos de ASF em África, causando perdas devastadoras. O ASFV é um virus de DNA de cadeia dupla, o único arbovírus de DNA e o único membro da familia Asfaviridae, infectando principalmente macrófagos e monócitos. Tal como todos os vírus, o ASFV contém genes que manipulam a biologia da célula do hospedeiro, como por exemplo, genes que inibem a apoptose e respostas imunes controladas pelo factor nuclear kappa B (NFκB), entre outros. Contudo, ainda não foi demonstrado que algum gene do ASFV consiga inibir a resposta do IFN. Isto é surpreendente, pois o ASFV infecta macrófagos, um tipo de célula sensível ao IFN e porque a sua infecção persistente, é incompatível com uma resposta efectiva mediada por IFN. O K205R é um gene do ASFV sem função definida, mas ensaios preliminares de luciferase mostraram que este gene consegue inibir a resposta do IFN. Contudo, os mecanismos utilizados pelo K205R nesta inibição são desconhecidos. O objectivo desta dissertação de mestrado é tentar perceber melhor estes mecanismos e determinar a sequência mínima necessária para que o K205R tenha o efeito observado. O K205R foi isolado através de PCR, utilizando como molde o DNA genómico da estirpe do AFSV, BA71. Subsequentemente, foiclonado no plasmídeo pcDNA3, que contém um marcador molecular, a hemaglutinina (HA), a montante da zona de inserção do gene. Para determinar a extensão da ação do K205R, foram feitos ensaios de luciferase utilizando células transfectadas com repórteres de luciferase sobre o controlo dos promotores de IFN- β, ISRE e GAS. O K205R mostrou inibição para todos os reporteres. Para tentar definir a zona do K205R responsável pelo efeito observado, fez-se uma previsão da estrutura secundária da proteína do K205R, recorrendo à bioinformática, que permitiu identificar uma sequência “coiled-coil” putativa, uma estrutura secundária associada a interações entre proteínas. Também é sugerida uma sequência putativa para um sinal de exportação nuclear (NES). Com base nesta análise foram construídos quatro fragmentos do K205R e posteriormente clonados no pcDNA3. Depois de se verificar a sequencia correcta de DNA de cada um dos clones e expressão das suas proteinas em células vero transfectadas , o passo seguinte foi verificar a localização celular destes fragmentos através de imunofluorescência nestas mesmas células. Esta experiência permitiu verificar que de facto, os fragmentos que não tinham a sequência putativa NES, em comparação com células transfectadas com o K205R inteiro, tinham uma maior acumulação nuclear. Para estudar o mecanismo, e a que nivel o K205R actua para inibir a via de sinalização do ISRE, foi feito um “western blot” utilizando extractos proteicos de células VERO transfectadas com os diferentes fragmentos do K205R e posteriormente estimuladas com IFN-β durante 15 minutos e durante 45 minutos. Esta experiência permitiu verificar que a fosforilação da STAT1 diminui na presença do K205R, contudo, apenas um fragmento reproduziu este efeito. Este fragmento de 75 aminoácidos não contém a sequência, nem para a sequência “coiled-coil”, nem para NES. Esta dissertação de mestrado apresenta resultados consistentes com a existência de um NES funcional na sequência do K205R, uma inibição da fosforilação da STAT1 mediada pelo K205R, mas também apresenta uma abordagem para determinar os mecanismos utilizados pelo K205R para inibir a indução e o impacto do IFN-β. Contudo, mais experiências têm de ser feitas para realmente se comprovar a existência de um NES, como por exemplo, ensaios de imunofluorescência de células transfectadas com K205R na presença de Leptomicina B, um inibidor da exportação nuclear. Também será necessário estudar as vias de sinalização inibidas pelo K205R que não foram abordadas neste trabalho, tal como a via de indução de IFN-β e a via do GAS.A key part of the innate response to virus infections is the interferon (IFN) response. This can limit virus replication and dissemination and is a critical factor in controlling virus infections, particularly persistent viruses. Many viruses encode proteins which interfere with induction of IFN and IFN-activated pathways and these can have important roles in virus pathogenesis and persistence. African Swine Fever (ASF) causes major economic losses in many African countries and is a threat to pig farming worldwide. There is no vaccine and therefore options for disease control are limited. In Europe, there is always the danger of accidental introduction of the virus, as indeed occurred in Portugal in 1957, causing severe financial losses. Thus, defining the mechanism of proteins involved in evasion of the host’s defense response and in virus virulence is of extreme interest, so we can understand the virus and try to develop strategies to reduce ASF impact. ASFV is a large cytoplasmic DNA virus which encodes between 160 to 175 open reading frames. Many of its genes are not essential for replication in vitro, but are host evasion strategies facilitating virus replication and transmission in vivo. These include proteins which inhibit host defence systems. Surprisingly, since ASFV can survive as a persistent virus, no ASFV proteins have been described which inhibit the IFN response. However, the early gene K205R, might have an impact on IFN response. Luciferase assays, shown inhibitions of IFN induction (IFN-β) and IFN-signalling (ISRE, GAS) pathways. Using a bioinformatics tool (Jpred), we got a predication of K205R protein secondary structure. Based on this prediction, deletion mutant fragments of K205R were constructed and used in immunofluorescence and western blot assays. The immunofluorescence results suggest the presence of a functional nuclear export signal (NES) motif in the K205R protein sequence. Western blot experiments suggested that K205R is affecting the phosphorylation status of STAT1, in cells stimulated with IFN-β (ISRE pathway). Although it was not possible to clearly determine the minimum sequence needed for all the functions of K205R, the results suggest that K205R inhibition of the impact of IFN type I, depends on a sequence within amino acids 130 and 205, which affects STAT1 phosphorylation. Further experiments should be done to investigate the mechanism of K205R inhibition in the pathways not covered on this thesis (IFN-β induction pathway and GAS pathway). The existence of functional NES also needs confirmation

TYK2-induced phosphorylation of Y640 suppresses STAT3 transcriptional activity

STAT3 is a pleiotropic transcription factor involved in homeostatic and host defense processes in the human body. It is activated by numerous cytokines and growth factors and generates a series of cellular effects. Of the STAT-mediated signal transduction pathways, STAT3 transcriptional control is best understood. Jak kinase dependent activation of STAT3 relies on Y705 phosphorylation triggering a conformational switch that is stabilized by intermolecular interactions between SH2 domains and the pY705 motif. We here show that a second tyrosine phosphorylation within the SH2 domain at position Y640, induced by Tyk2, negatively controls STAT3 activity. The Y640F mutation leads to stabilization of activated STAT3 homodimers, accelerated nuclear translocation and superior transcriptional activity following IL-6 and LIF stimulation. Moreover, it unlocks type I IFN-dependent STAT3 signalling in cells that are normally refractory to STAT3 transcriptional activation

STAT2/IRF9 directs a prolonged ISGF3-like transcriptional response and antiviral activity in the absence of STAT1

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Carbopol/Chitosan Based pH Triggered In Situ Gelling System for Ocular Delivery of Timolol Maleate

The poor bioavailability and therapeutic response exhibited by conventional ophthalmic preparations due to rapid precorneal elimination, dilution and nasolacrimal drainage of the drug may be vanquished by the use of in situ gelling systems that are instilled as drops in to the eye and undergo a sol-gel transition in the cul-de-sac. Timolol eye drops may cause systemic side effects in glaucoma patients due to absorption of the drug into systemic circulation. In situ gelling system of this drug can provide localized effect with reduced contraindications, improved patient compliance and better therapeutic index. The present work describes the formulation and evaluation of an ophthalmic delivery system of an antiglaucoma drug, timolol maleate (TM) based on the concept of pH-triggered in situ gelation. Polyacrylic acid (carbopol) was used as the gelling agent in combination with chitosan (amine polysaccharide), which was acted as a viscosity-enhancing agent. Formulations were evaluated for pH, viscosity, gelling capacity and drug content. The 0.4% w/v carbopol/0.5% w/v chitosan based in situ gelling system was in liquid state at room temperature and at the pH formulated (pH 6.0) and underwent rapid transition into the viscous gel phase at the pH of the tear fluid (lacrimal fluid) (pH 7.4). The in vitro drug release and in vivo effects of the developed in situ gelling system were compared with that of Glucomol® (a 0.25% TM ophthalmic solution), 0.4% w/v carbopol solution as well as liposomal formulation. The results clearly demonstrated that developed carbopol-chitosan based formulation was therapeutically efficacious and showed a fickian (diffusion controlled) type of release behaviour over 24 h periods. The developed system is thus a viable alternative to conventional eye drops and can also prevent the rapid drainage as in case of liposomes

Signal Integration of IFN-I and IFN-II With TLR4 Involves Sequential Recruitment of STAT1-Complexes and NFkB to Enhance Pro-inflammatory Transcription

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Inhibition of type I interferon induction and signalling by mosquito-borne flaviviruses

The Flavivirus genus (Flaviviridae family) contains a number of important human pathogens, including dengue and Zika viruses, which have the potential to cause severe disease. In order to efficiently establish a productive infection in mammalian cells, flaviviruses have developed key strategies to counteract host immune defences, including the type I interferon response. They employ different mechanisms to control interferon signal transduction and effector pathways, and key research generated over the past couple of decades has uncovered new insights into their abilities to actively decrease interferon antiviral activity. Given the lack of antivirals or prophylactic treatments for many flaviviral infections, it is important to fully understand how these viruses affect cellular processes to influence pathogenesis and disease outcome. This review will discuss the strategies mosquito-borne flaviviruses have evolved to antagonise type I interferon mediated immune responses

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 may exploit human transcription factors involved in retinoic acid and interferon-mediated response: a hypothesis supported by an in silico analysis

The pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), resulting in acute respiratory disease, is a worldwide emergency. Because recently it has been found that SARS-CoV is dependent on host transcription factors (TF) to express the viral genes, efforts are required to understand the molecular interplay between virus and host response. By bioinformatic analysis, we investigated human TF that can bind the SARS-CoV-2 sequence and can be involved in viral transcription. In particular, we analysed the key role of TF involved in interferon (IFN) response. We found that several TF could be induced by the IFN antiviral response, specifically some induced by IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) and by unphosphorylated ISGF3, which were found to promote the transcription of several viral open reading frame. Moreover, we found 22 TF binding sites present only in the sequence of virus infecting humans but not bat coronavirus RaTG13. The 22 TF are involved in IFN, retinoic acid signalling and regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II, thus facilitating its own replication cycle. This mechanism, by competition, may steal the human TF involved in these processes, explaining SARS-CoV-2's disruption of IFN-I signalling in host cells and the mechanism of the SARS retinoic acid depletion syndrome leading to the cytokine storm. We identified three TF binding sites present exclusively in the Brazilian SARS-CoV-2 P.1 variant that may explain the higher severity of the respiratory syndrome. These data shed light on SARS-CoV-2 dependence from the host transcription machinery associated with IFN response and strengthen our knowledge of the virus's transcription and replicative activity, thus paving the way for new targets for drug design and therapeutic approaches

Positive feedback regulation of type I IFN genes by the IFN-inducible transcription factor IRF-7

AbstractThe interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family of transcription factors regulate the interferon (IFN) system, among which IRF-3 is involved in the virus-induced IFN-β gene expression. Here we show that another member IRF-7 is critical for the IFN-α gene induction. Unlike the IRF-3 gene, the IRF-7 gene is induced by IFNs through activation of the ISGF3 transcription factor, and IRF-7 undergoes virus-induced nuclear translocation. In cells lacking p48, an essential component of IFN stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), ectopic expression of IRF-7 but not IRF-3 can rescue the deficiency to induce IFN-α genes. These results indicate that IRF-7 is a key factor in the positive feedback regulation of IFN-α/β production