Impact of emission controls on air quality in Beijing during APEC 2014: Lidar ceilometer observations

The implementation of emission reductions during the 2014 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit provides a valuable opportunity to study air pollution in Beijing. From 15 October to 30 November 2014, the height of the atmospheric mixing layer and the vertical attenuated backscattering coefficient profiles were observed online using a lidar ceilometer. Compared with fine particulate matter (PM$_{2,5}$) and aerosol optical depth (AOD) data, the attenuated backscattering coefficients measured by the lidar ceilometer were strongly correlated with the PM$_{2,5}$ concentration and AOD (correlation coefficients of 0.89 and 0.86, respectively). This result demonstrated the reliability of the vertical distribution of particles measured by the lidar ceilometer. By classifying different degrees of air pollution based on visibility, we found that during the transition period of air pollution, which was affected by transport of southerly flows in the mixing layer, the attenuated backscattering coefficient from 0 to 1500m was enhanced by approximately 1.4Mm$^{-1}$ sr$^{-1}$ (140 %). During the polluted period, the attenuated backscattering coefficient from 0 to 300m suddenly increased, and the coefficient near the surface peaked (approximately 14Mm$^{-1}$ sr$^{-1}$); however, the attenuated backscattering coefficient from 300 to 900m decreased gradually, and the average value from 0 to 1500mdecreased by 0.5Mm$^{-1}$ sr$^{-1}$ (20 %). The height of the mixing layer gradually decreased, and the ratio of CO/SO$_{2}$ gradually increased, which indicate that the polluted period was dominated by local contribution. Due to the emission reductions during APEC (DAPEC), the concentration of PM$_{2,5}$ decreased by 59.2 and 58.9% and visibility improved by 70.2 and 56.0% compared to before (BAPEC) and after APEC (AAPEC), respectively. The contribution of regional transport in DAPEC decreased by approximately 36 and 25 %, and the local contribution decreased by approximately 48 and 54% compared to BAPEC and AAPEC, respectively. The most effective method of controlling air pollution in the Beijing area is to reduce regional emissions during the transition period and reduce local emissions during the polluted period

Observing wind, aerosol particles, clouds and precipitation: Finland's new ground-based remote-sensing network

The Finnish Meteorological Institute, in collaboration with the University of Helsinki, has established a new ground-based remote-sensing network in Finland. The network consists of five topographically, ecologically and climatically different sites distributed from southern to northern Finland. The main goal of the network is to monitor air pollution and boundary layer properties in near real time, with a Doppler lidar and ceilometer at each site. In addition to these operational tasks, two sites are members of the Aerosols, Clouds and Trace gases Research InfraStructure Network (ACTRIS); a Ka band cloud radar at Sodankylä will provide cloud retrievals within CloudNet, and a multi-wavelength Raman lidar, PollyXT (POrtabLe Lidar sYstem eXTended), in Kuopio provides optical and microphysical aerosol properties through EARLINET (the European Aerosol Research Lidar Network). Three C-band weather radars are located in the Helsinki metropolitan area and are deployed for operational and research applications. We performed two inter-comparison campaigns to investigate the Doppler lidar performance, compare the backscatter signal and wind profiles, and to optimize the lidar sensitivity through adjusting the telescope focus length and data-integration time to ensure sufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in low-aerosol-content environments. In terms of statistical characterization, the wind-profile comparison showed good agreement between different lidars. Initially, there was a discrepancy in the SNR and attenuated backscatter coefficient profiles which arose from an incorrectly reported telescope focus setting from one instrument, together with the need to calibrate. After diagnosing the true telescope focus length, calculating a new attenuated backscatter coefficient profile with the new telescope function and taking into account calibration, the resulting attenuated backscatter profiles all showed good agreement with each other. It was thought that harsh Finnish winters could pose problems, but, due to the built-in heating systems, low ambient temperatures had no, or only a minor, impact on the lidar operation – including scanning-head motion. However, accumulation of snow and ice on the lens has been observed, which can lead to the formation of a water/ice layer thus attenuating the signal inconsistently. Thus, care must be taken to ensure continuous snow removal

Lidar remote sensing and co-operative observations: Processing methods and aerosol radiative transfer

This Ph.D. thesis focuses on: (i) the design and integration of a polarimetric channel for the multi-spectral Raman lidar station of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Remote Sensing, Antennas, Microwaves and Superconductivity Group (CommSensLab), (ii) the study of the temporal and spatial evolution of atmospheric aerosol optical, microphysical and radiative properties by means of active and passive remote sensing in the context of ACTRIS and Spanish National projects, and (iii) rainfall rate retrieval by means of a vertically-pointed ceilometer in the context of the Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment Southeast (VORTEX-SE). The first goal of this Ph.D., tested on the UPC multi-spectral Raman lidar station, consists of developing a secondary optical receiving chain, installed next to the laser source. The secondary telescope, mounted in the optical chain, allows retrieving the cross-polarized return signal separately from the total-power signal, avoiding the need of a very precise characterization of the crosstalk parameters of the beam-splitters. The first experimental results, corresponding to a collection of atmospheric conditions over the city of Barcelona, are also presented. The second goal of this Ph.D. deals first with the GAME (Global Atmospheric Model) code, necessary to retrieve the aerosol radiative properties. The radiative fluxes estimated in the short-wave and long-wave spectral ranges at the bottom and the top of the atmosphere by GAME are compared to the ones retrieved by a different radiative transfer model, namely Two-Stream, in order to know the importance of the spectral parameterization of a radiative transfer code. Then, GAME code, in both configurations, is fed by means of three different datasets to evaluate the parameterization of the vertically-resolved properties and to assess the uncertainty of GAME when is tuned with input parameters from different sources. Afterwards, an evaluation of the seasonal variability of the aerosol background optical and radiative properties in the Western Mediterranean Basin (WMB) is performed by means of AERONET (Aerosol Robotic Network) sun-photometers data from two background sites, Ersa (Corsica Island, France) and Palma de Mallorca (Mallorca Island, Spain). In addition, in order to detect possible northeast-southwest gradients in the aerosol properties, a third site located at Abolrán (Alborán Island, Spain) is considered. Finally, during 15-24 June 2013 a moderate Saharan dust multi-intrusion was detected by some EARLINET/ACTRIS (Granada, Barcelona, Naples, Potenza and Serra la Nave (Italy)) and ADRIMED/ChArMEx (Cap d’en Font, (Minorca Island, Spain) and Ersa) stations. This Ph.D. uses this event to study the spatio-temporal evolution of the mineral dust properties, since the lidar stations were supported during the multi-intrusion by collocated AERONET sun-photometers and the Falcon 20 aircraft. Also the GAME code is used to estimate the aerosol radiaite effect during the Saharan dust event. Besides, air- and space-borne lidar measurements, satellite images and back-trajectories are used to confirm the multi-intrusion aspect of the event. The last goal of this Ph.D. pursues estimation of the rain rate (RR) from ceilometer measurements. In VORTEX-SE, a Vaisala CL-31 ceilometer, a S-band radar, and a disdrometer were deployed in Alabama during March-April 2016. First, rain-extinction coefficients from ceilometer attenuated backscatter measurements are derived by means of a modified form of the well-known slope-method. These coefficients are compared with the RRs measured by a collocated S-band radar and a disdrometer in order to get the RR-to-extinction models. Advanced covariance-weighted techniques are used to best assess and validate the estimated models. These models can be used to estimate the RR from the ceilometer in similar situations without need to have a collocated cooperative instrument permanently deployed.Este Ph.D. se centra en: (i) en el diseño e integración de un canal polarimétrico para la estación lidar multi espectral del grupo de teledetección, antenas, microondas y superconductividad (CommSensLab) de la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), (ii) en el estudio de la evolución temporal y espacial de las propiedades ópticas, microfísicas y radiativas de los aerosoles por medio de teledetección activa y pasiva en el contexto de ACTRIS y proyectos estatales, y (iii) en la recuperación de intensidad de lluvia por medio de un ceilómetro en configuración vertical en el contexto del proyecto Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment Southeast (VORTEX-SE). El primer objetivo, realizado en la estación lidar de UPC, consiste en el desarrollo de una cadena óptica secundaria instalada junto al láser. El telescopio secundario, montado en la cadena óptica, permite recuperar la componente cross-polarized de la señal total por separado, evitando la necesidad de conocer con precisión los parámetros de los beam-splitters. Se presentan también los primeros resultados obtenidos en Barcelona durante diferentes situaciones atmosféricas. El segundo objetivo de este Ph.D. se centra en el código GAME (Global Atmospheric Model), necesario para recuperar las propiedades radiativas de los aerosoles. Los flujos radiativos estimados tanto en onda larga como en onda corta en la base y en la parte superior de la atmósfera son comparados con los estimados por otro código de transferencia radiativa, Two-Stream, para conocer la importancia de la parametrización espectral. Después, el código GAME es alimentado con 3 bases de datos diferentes para evaluar la parametrización de las propiedades resueltas en altura y conocer la incertidumbre de GAME cuando es alimentado con parámetros con diferentes orígenes. Por otro lado, se presenta una evaluación de la variabilidad estacional de las propiedades ópticas y radiativas del aerosol de fondo en la cuenca oeste mediterránea (WMB) realizada con datos de fotómetros solares de la red AERONET (Aerosol Robotic Network) situados en dos puntos considerados libres de contaminación: Ersa (isla de Córcega, Francia) y Palma de Mallorca. Además, para detectar posibles gradientes noreste-suroeste en las propiedades delos aerosoles, se considera un tercer punto ubicado en la isla de Alborán. Por último, en este Ph.D. se aprovecha una multi intrusión moderada de polvo sahariano, detectada entre los días 15 y 24 de junio de 2013 por algunas estaciones EARLINET/ACTRIS (Granada, Barcelona, Nápoles, Potenza y Serra la Nave (Italia)) y ADRIMED/ChArMEx (Cap d'en Font (Menorca) y Ersa), para estudiar la evolución espacio-temporal de las propiedades del polvo mineral, ya que las estaciones lidar estaban apoyadas durante el evento por fotómetros solares pertenecientes a la red AERONET, situados junto a las estaciones lidar, y por vuelos del Falcon 20. GAME es usado para obtener también el efecto radiativo de los aerosoles durante el evento de polvo sahariano. Para confirmar el aspecto de multi intrusión se utilizan medidas lidar tomadas a bordo de aviones y satélites, imágenes satelitales y retro trayectorias. El último objetivo del Ph.D. persigue la estimación de la RR utilizando medidas de un ceilómetro. En VORTEX-SE, se desplegaron (Alabama, marzo-abril 2016) un ceilómetro Vaisala CL-31, un radar de banda S y un disdrómetro. Se han estimado los coeficientes de extinción debida a la lluvia a partir del retorno atenuado medido por el ceilómetro, utilizando una versión modificada del método de la pendiente. Estos coeficientes se comparan con las intensidades de lluvia (RR) estimadas con el radar y el disdrómetro para obtener modelos de RR-extinción. Para validarlos se utilizan técnicas avanzadas de covarianza ponderada. Dichos modelos pueden usarse para estimar la RR con un ceilómetro, en situaciones similares, sin necesidad de tener desplegado permanentemente un instrumento cooperativo.Postprint (published version

Development and application of a backscatter lidar forward operator for quantitative validation of aerosol dispersion models and future data assimilation

A new backscatter lidar forward operator was developed which is based on the distinct calculation of the aerosols’ backscatter and extinction properties. The forward operator was adapted to the COSMO-ART ash dispersion simulation of the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010. While the particle number concentration was provided as a model output variable, the scattering properties of each individual particle type were determined by dedicated scattering calculations. Sensitivity studies were performed to estimate the uncertainties related to the assumed particle properties. Scattering calculations for several types of non-spherical particles required the usage of T-matrix routines. Due to the distinct calculation of the backscatter and extinction properties of the models’ volcanic ash size classes, the sensitivity studies could be made for each size class individually, which is not the case for forward models based on a fixed lidar ratio. Finally, the forward-modeled lidar profiles have been compared to automated ceilometer lidar (ACL) measurements both qualitatively and quantitatively while the attenuated backscatter coefficient was chosen as a suitable physical quantity. As the ACL measurements were not calibrated automatically, their calibration had to be performed using satellite lidar and ground-based Raman lidar measurements. A slight overestimation of the model-predicted volcanic ash number density was observed. Major requirements for future data assimilation of data from ACL have been identified, namely, the availability of calibrated lidar measurement data, a scattering database for atmospheric aerosols, a better representation and coverage of aerosols by the ash dispersion model, and more investigation in backscatter lidar forward operators which calculate the backscatter coefficient directly for each individual aerosol type. The introduced forward operator offers the flexibility to be adapted to a multitude of model systems and measurement setups

What is the benefit of ceilometers for aerosol remote sensing? An answer from EARLINET

With the establishment of ceilometer networks by national weather services, a discussion commenced to which extent these simple backscatter lidars can be used for aerosol research. Though primarily designed for the detection of clouds it was shown that at least observations of the vertical structure of the boundary layer might be possible. However, an assessment of the potential of ceilometers for the quantitative retrieval of aerosol properties is still missing. In this paper we discuss different retrieval methods to derive the aerosol backscatter coefficient beta(p),with special focus on the calibration of the ceilometers. Different options based on forward and backward integration methods are compared with respect to their accuracy and applicability. It is shown that advanced lidar systems such as those being operated in the framework of the European Aerosol Research Lidar Network (EARLINET) are excellent tools for the calibration, and thus beta(p) retrievals based on forward integration can readily be implemented and used for real-time applications. Furthermore, we discuss uncertainties introduced by incomplete overlap, the unknown lidar ratio, and water vapor absorption. The latter is relevant for the very large number of ceilometers operating in the spectral range around lambda = 905-910 nm. The accuracy of the retrieved beta(p) mainly depends on the accuracy of the calibration and the long-term stability of the ceilometer. Under favorable conditions, a relative error of beta(p) on the order of 10% seems feasible. In the case of water vapor absorption, corrections assuming a realistic water vapor distribution and laser spectrum are indispensable;otherwise errors on the order of 20% could occur. From case studies it is shown that ceilometers can be used for the reliable detection of elevated aerosol layers below 5 km, and can contribute to the validation of chemistry transport models, e. g.,the height of the boundary layer. However, the exploitation of ceilometer measurements is still in its infancy, so more studies are urgently needed to consolidate the present state of knowledge, which is based on a limited number of case studies

Master of Science

thesisThis thesis investigates the utility of lidar ceilometers, a type of aerosol lidar, in improving the understanding of meteorology and air quality in persistent wintertime stable boundary layers, or cold-air pools, that form in urbanized valley and basin topography. This thesis reviews the scientific literature to survey the present knowledge of persistent cold-air pools, the operating principles of lidar ceilometers, and their demonstrated utility in meteorological investigations. Lidar ceilometer data from the Persistent Cold-Air Pool Study (PCAPS) are then used with meteorological and air quality data from other in situ and remote sensing equipment to investigate cold-air pools that formed in Utah's Salt Lake Valley during the winter of 2010-2011. The lidar ceilometer is shown to accurately measure aerosol layer depth and aerosol loading, when compared to visual observations. A linear relationship is found between low-level lidar backscatter and surface particulate measurements. Convective boundary layer lidar analysis techniques applied to cold-air pool ceilometer profiles can detect useful layer haracteristics. Fine-scale waves are observed and analyzed within the aerosol layer, with emphasis on Kelvin-Helmholz waves. Ceilometer aerosol backscatter profiles are analyzed to quantify and describe mixing processes in persistent cold-air pools. Overlays of other remote and in-situ observations are combined with ceilometer particle backscatter to describe specific events during PCAPS. This analysis describes the relationship between the aerosol layer and the valley inversion as well as interactions with large-scale meteorology. The ceilometer observations of hydrometers are used to quantify cloudiness and precipitation during the project, observing that 50% of hours when a PCAP was present had clouds or precipitation below 5 km above ground level (AGL). Then, combining an objective technique for determining hourly aerosol layer depths and correcting this subjectively during periods with low clouds or precipitation, a time series of aerosol depths was obtained. The mean depth of the surface-based aerosol layer during PCAP events was 1861 m MSL with a standard deviation of 135 m. The aerosol layer depth, given the approximate 1300 m altitude of the valley floor, is thus about 550 m, about 46% of the basin depth. The aerosol layer is present during much of the winter and is removed only during strong or prolonged precipitation periods or when surface winds are strong. Nocturnal fogs that formed near the end of high-stability PCAP episodes had a limited effect on aerosol layer depth. Aerosol layer depth was relatively invariant during the winter and during the persistent cold-air pools, while PMio concentrations at the valley floor varied with bulk atmospheric stability associated primarily with passage of large-scale high- and low-pressure weather systems. PM10 concentrations also increased with cold-air pool duration. Mean aerosol loading in the surface-based aerosol layer, as determined from ceilometer backscatter coefficients, showed weaker variations than those of surface PM10 concentrations, suggesting that ineffective vertical mixing and aerosol layering are present in the cold-air pools. This is supported by higher time-resolution backscatter data, and it distinguishes the persistent cold-air pools from well-mixed convective boundary layers where ground-based air pollution concentrations are closely related to time-dependent convective boundary layer/aerosol depths. These results are discussed along with recommendations for future explorations of the ceilometer and cold-air pool topics

Comparing remotely sensed observations of clouds and aerosols in the Southern Ocean with climate model simulations.

Southern Ocean (SO) shortwave (SW) radiation biases are a common problem in contemporary general circulation models (GCMs), with most models exhibiting a tendency to absorb too much incoming SW radiation. These biases have been attributed to deficiencies in the representation of clouds during the austral summer months, either due to cloud cover or cloud albedo being too low. They affect simulation of New Zealand (NZ) and global climate in GCMs due to excessive heating of the sea surface and the effect on large-scale circulation. Therefore, improvement of GCMs is necessary for accurate prediction of future NZ and global climate. We performed ship-based lidar, radar, radiosonde and weather observations on two SO voyages and processed data from multiple past SO voyages. We used the observations and satellite measurements for evaluation of the Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model version 3 (HadGEM3) and contrasting with the Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications version 2 (MERRA-2) to better understand the source of the problem. Due to the nature of lidar observations (the laser signal is quickly attenuated by clouds) they cannot be used for 1:1 comparison with a model without using a lidar simulator, which performs atmospheric radiative transfer calculations of the laser signal. We modify an existing satellite lidar simulator present in the Cloud Feedback Model Intercomparison Project (CFMIP) Observational Simulator Package (COSP) for use with the ground-based lidars used in our observations by modifying the geometry of the radiative transfer calculations, Mie and Rayleigh scattering of the laser signal. We document and make the modified lidar simulator available to the scientific community as part of a newly-developed lidar processing tool called the Automatic Lidar and Ceilometer Framework (ALCF), which enables unbiased comparison between lidar observations and models by performing calibration of lidar backscatter, noise removal and consistent cloud detection. We apply the lidar simulator on HadGEM3 model fields. Significant SW radiation errors in the SO of up to 21 Wm−2 are shown to be present in the model. Using the lidar observations, we find that the model underestimates overall cloud cover by about 9% and strongly underestimates boundary layer low-level stratocumulus (Sc) cloud below 1 km and fog. By using radiosonde observations, we find that the observed cloud was strongly linked to the boundary layer stability and sea surface temperature, while this relationship is weaker in the model. We identify that these errors are not due to misrepresentation of large-scale circulation, which is prescribed in our model based on global satellite observations by nudging. We conclude that the problem is likely in the subgrid-scale parametrisation schemes of the boundary layer, convection and large-scale could. In order to address the deficiencies identified we perform experimental simulations of HadGEM3 with modifications of the parametrisation schemes. We find that a three-layer cloud profiles were common in the Ross Sea region, consisting of cumulus (Cu) below Sc, and corresponding to local thermodynamic levels: lifting condensation level, dry and moist neutral buoyancy levels of parcels lifted from the surface. We find that not enough moisture is transported to the top of the boundary layer to form Sc clouds. By increasing surface moisture flux and convective mass flux in the model we improve the Sc cloud simulation, but we show that a lack of vertical moisture transport across the lifting condensation level from the surface layer to the zone of convective mass flux is a likely limiting factor. We show that the modifications had a positive impact on the Southern Ocean and global radiation balance of up to 5 Wm−2 in zonal average over this limited time period. We suggest that further research should focus on the weak vertical coupling between the boundary layer turbulence and boundary layer convection parametrisation in the model, and that the lidar simulator framework is used as a cloud evaluation tool in further studies due to its benefits over more statistical approaches, which tend to hide compensating biases

EVALUATION OF RETRIEVED AEROSOL EXTINCTION PROFILES USING AS REFERENCE THE AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VARIOUS HEIGHTS

Aerosol extinction vertical profiles at Granada (Spain) are calculated with the GRASP (Generalized Retrieval of Aerosol and Surface Properties) code using as input Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) and sky radiance measurements from AERONET (AEerosol RObotic NETwork) and ceilometer RCS (Range Corrected Signal) profiles, both corresponding to the Granada (Spain) station. This methodology is so called GRASPpac due to the combination of sun/sky photometer and ceilometer on GRASP. In order to evaluate the accuracy of these retrieved extinction profiles at Granada, two more nearby AERONET stations, located at different altitudes, are used. The AOD difference of the three choosen AERONET sun/sky photometers have been used to calculate the Integrated Aerosol Extinction (IAE) at different height layers. These three AERONET sun/sky photometers are used as a reference and compared against the integrated extinction at the same layers from the extinction profiles retrieved by GRASPpac. The differences between AERONET and GRASPpac retrieved IAE values indicate that GRASPpac aerosol extinction profiles are at least within the uncertainty of the sun/sky photometer measurements, but GRASPpac method overestimates the AERONET extinction at low altitudes and underestimates it at high levels. The most accurate and precise retrieved extinction correspond to the intermediate layer with a mean bias error (MBE ± standard deviation) of 0.00 ± 0.01 (0 ± 59%) for 1020 nm, and the worst integrated extinction results were obtained for the upper layers with a MBE of −0.01 ± 0.02 (28 ± 36%) for 1020 nm. In general these MBE values increases for shorter wavelengths. In order to obtain a complete characterization of this bias, the dependence of the obtained differences on the aerosol size and the solar zenith angle, among others, are analysed in detail. Finally, the behaviour of vertically-resolved aerosol extinction at Granada is evaluated using averages of the retrieved profiles from November of 2012 to December of 2017. The highest IAE values are found in Summer with mean values of 0.09 for the lower layers and 0.07 for the upper ones, both at 440 nm wavelength.Andalusia Regional Government (project P12-RNM-2409)“Consejería de Educación” of “Junta de Castilla y León” (project VA100U14)Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness under the projects, CMT2015-66742-R, CGL2016-81092-R, “Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación” program (FIJCI-2016-30007) and CGL2017-90884-RED