Thulium-doped fibre laser in the 2 μm wavelength region for gas sensing

The transition 3F4->3H6 of trivalent Thulium is widely studied for generating lasers at wavelength near 2 μm. For decades, tuneable continuous wave narrow line-width sources in this wavelength region have been proved to be very useful as spectroscopic tools for trace gas detection. Semiconductor lasers are often not readily available at a reasonable cost with the specific wavelengths required to provide a close ‘match’ to the key absorption features of the gases of interest. Well-designed fibre laser-based systems, however, can overcome this limitation by offering potentially much wider wavelength ranges, coupled with their distinctive and valuable features such as stability, narrow linewidth and high tuneability at room temperature. In this work, a compact ‘all-fibre’ laser system has been specifically designed, developed and evaluated, as this type of laser systems is highly desirable for ‘in-the-field’ applications. This takes full advantages of the active fibres based on silica glass host compared to other non-oxide glass hosts in terms of their chemical durability, stability and crucial structural compatibility with readily available telecommunication optical fibres. Ideal host composition for Thulium and efficient pumping scheme posses major challenges restricting the production of commercially deployable efficient ‘all-fibre’ lasers in the 2 μm wavelength region. The aim of the thesis work is to address these challenges. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates a modulated Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ tuneable laser in the 2 μm wavelength region suitable for detection of a number of gases of interest. The scope of work includes the fabrication and optimization of the active fibre with the core composition suitable for the creation of an effective Thulium-doped fibre laser. Codoping of Ytterbium is explored to investigate the energy-transfer mechanism from Ytterbium to Thulium and thereby opening up the opportunity of using economic pump laser diodes emitting at around 0.98 μm. In this respect, both Thulium- and Thulium/Ytterbium-doped single-mode single-clad silica optical fibres are designed and fabricated for a systematic analysis before being used as laser gain media. The optical preforms having different host compositions, Thulium-ion concentrations and proportions of Ytterbium to Thulium are fabricated by using the Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition technique coupled with solution doping to enable the incorporation of rareearth ions into the preforms. A thorough investigation of the basic absorption and emission properties of Thulium-doped silica fibres has been performed. The step-wise energy-transfer parameters in Thulium/Ytterbium-doped silica fibre have been determined quantitatively from spectroscopic measurements along with migrationassisted energy-transfer model. A set of tuneable Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ lasers, offering a narrow line-width in the 2 μm wavelength region, is created by using fabricated Thulium-and Thulium/Ytterbium-doped fibres as gain media and fibre Bragg grating pairs under in-band pumping at 1.6 μm and/or pumping by an economical laser diode at 0.98 μm, utilizing Ytterbium to Thulium energy- transfer. The host composition and the dopnat concentration in the single-mode single-clad fibre configuration are optimized to achieve maximum lasing efficiency. The tuning of laser wavelength has been achieved by using relaxation/compression mechanism of the fibre Bragg grating pair used to confine the laser cavity. A new set of laser resonators has also been formed by using a combination of a high reflective fibre Bragg grating with a low reflective broadband mirror, fabricated at the end of the fibre through silver film deposition, to enable only one fibre Bragg grating to be tuned. The stability of the laser output power, line-width and shape have been monitored throughout the tuning range. This is followed by the design of a compact, high-Q, narrow line-width and low threshold microsphere laser resonator, operating in the 2 μm wavelength region, by coupling a Thulium-doped silica microsphere to a tapered fibre. In the microsphere, laser emission occurred at wavelengths over the range from 1.9 to 2.0 μm under excitation at a wavelength of around 1.6 μm. The designed modulated tuneable Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ laser, operating at a wavelength range centred at a wavelength of 1.995 μm, has been tested for CO2 gas detection. Both the modulation of the fibre laser, through pump source modulation and the ‘locking’ detection mechanism have been utilized to eliminate laser intensity noise and therefore to obtain a compact gas sensor with high sensitivity. The absorption spectrum, the line-strength and the concentration level of CO2, have been monitored using the absorption spectroscopic technique. The measured minimum detectable concentration of CO2 obtained using the system confirms the claim that it is capable of detecting trace gases at the ppm level. The stable laser performance achieved in the sensor system illustrates its potential for the development of practical, compact yet sensitive fibre laser based gas sensor systems

Nonlinear Optics in Chalcogenide and Tellurite Microspheres for the Generation of Mid-Infrared Frequencies

Le développement de sources optiques émettant au-delà des bandes de télécommunication jusqu’à l’infrarouge moyen est grandissant. Des sources nouvelles et améliorées émettant à des longueurs d’onde allant de 2 μm à 12 μm sont régulièrement rapportées dans la communauté scientifique et quelques sources sont déjà disponibles sur le marché. Divers domaines profitent de ces développements dont l’imagerie, les télécommunications, le traitement des matériaux et l’analyse moléculaire pour n’en nommer que quelques-uns. Parmi ces sources,les lasers basés sur les microcavités à modes de galerie sont de plus en plus présents puisque beaucoup d’efforts sont déployés au transfert de leurs propriétés uniques du proche infrarouge à l’infrarouge moyen. En plus de leurs dimensions micrométriques, les microcavités à modes de galerie sont naturellement adaptées à la génération non linéaire de signaux optiques : elles possèdent de grands facteurs de qualité et de petits volumes modaux. Les processus non linéaires de diffusion Raman stimulée et en cascade sont attrayants puisqu’ils ne requièrent aucune condition de dispersion particulière. De plus, ces processus sont observables sur toute la fenêtre de transmission du matériau. La silice qui est le matériel de choix typiquement utilisé pour la transmission de signal dans le proche infrarouge devient opaque aux longueurs d’onde excédant 2 μm. Pour cette raison, on tirera profit de matériaux moins conventionnels mais transparents dans l’infrarouge moyen, tels que les verres de chalcogénure et de tellure. Parmi les microcavités à modes de galerie basées sur les verres de chalcogénure qui ont été rapportées, aucune démonstration de génération non linéaire n’a été faite. Cela s’explique par des pertes optiques trop élevées qui limitent les puissances de seuil aux dizaines de milliwatts, loin des puissances de seuil de quelques microwatts observées dans les microcavités en silice dans le proche infrarouge. La première contribution de cette thèse répond à ce problème par la fabrication de microsphères de haute qualité en As2S3. Reconnus pour leur transparence entre les longueurs d’onde de 1 μm à 6 μm, les verres en As2S3 peuvent être produits avec une grande pureté et possèdent un gain Raman élevé comparé à la silice. Les microsphères en As2S3 sont produites à partir de fibres optiques de grande pureté et elles démontrent des pertes optiques similaires à celles des fibres. Grâce aux procédés d’usinage par laser, les facteurs de qualité optique sont deux ordres de grandeur supérieurs aux valeurs précédemment rapportées. Les microsphères peuvent être fabriquées avec des diamètres variant de 20 μm à 400 μm. Enfin, leur qualité est conservée par un procédé d’encapsulation.----------Abstract In the recent years, the development of optical sources emitting outside the standard telecommunication bands and in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) region is thriving. New and improved sources with wavelengths spanning from 2 μm to 12 μm are regularly reported in the research community and various sources are already available on the market. Diverse domains including imagery, communication, material processing, and molecular analysis are taking advantage of these sources. Among these, micron-size lasers based on whispering gallery modes (WGM) microcavities are gradually entering the race as more effort is invested to transfer their unique properties from near-infrared to mid-IR regions. Along their compactness,WGM microcavities are naturally suitable for nonlinear signal generation: they possess relatively large Q-factors and small mode volumes. Stimulated and cascaded Raman scattering processes are especially attractive for signal generation as they require no particular dispersion condition. Furthermore, these processes can be observed across the entire transparency window of the host material. Typical near-IR materials such as silica have to be replaced by unconventional ones such as chalcogenide and tellurite glasses. All previously reported WGM microcavities based on chalcogenide and tellurite glasses failed to demonstrate nonlinear interaction. They suffered from large optical losses that push threshold power levels to tens of milliwatts, far from the μW level usually observed in silica microcavities at near-IR wavelengths. The first contribution of this thesis is therefore to solve this issue by fabricating low loss As2S3 WGM microcavities. Known for its 1−6 μm transparency window, As2S3 glass can be produced with high purity and exhibits a large Raman gain compared to silica. Made from high purity optical fibers, As2S3 microspheres demonstrated loss levels similar to the optical fiber attenuation. Thanks to a fabrication technique based on laser shaping, the measured optical Q-factors exceed previously reported values by two orders of magnitude in As2S3. Microspheres can be produced with diameters varying between 20 μm and 400 μm. Their quality is maintained using an encapsulation method. The packaged device additionally includes a tapered optical fiber to couple light in and out of the microcavity. The second thesis contribution is the demonstration of stimulated Raman scattering in As2S3 microspheres. Threshold coupled pump powers of ~ 13 μW with internal power conversion efficiency of 10 % were observed for pump and signal wavelengths of 1550 nm and 1640 nm

Thulium-doped fibre laser in the 2 μm wavelength region for gas sensing

The transition 3F4->3H6 of trivalent Thulium is widely studied for generating lasers at wavelength near 2 μm. For decades, tuneable continuous wave narrow line-width sources in this wavelength region have been proved to be very useful as spectroscopic tools for trace gas detection. Semiconductor lasers are often not readily available at a reasonable cost with the specific wavelengths required to provide a close ‘match’ to the key absorption features of the gases of interest. Well-designed fibre laser-based systems, however, can overcome this limitation by offering potentially much wider wavelength ranges, coupled with their distinctive and valuable features such as stability, narrow linewidth and high tuneability at room temperature. In this work, a compact ‘all-fibre’ laser system has been specifically designed, developed and evaluated, as this type of laser systems is highly desirable for ‘in-the-field’ applications. This takes full advantages of the active fibres based on silica glass host compared to other non-oxide glass hosts in terms of their chemical durability, stability and crucial structural compatibility with readily available telecommunication optical fibres. Ideal host composition for Thulium and efficient pumping scheme posses major challenges restricting the production of commercially deployable efficient ‘all-fibre’ lasers in the 2 μm wavelength region. The aim of the thesis work is to address these challenges. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates a modulated Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ tuneable laser in the 2 μm wavelength region suitable for detection of a number of gases of interest. The scope of work includes the fabrication and optimization of the active fibre with the core composition suitable for the creation of an effective Thulium-doped fibre laser. Codoping of Ytterbium is explored to investigate the energy-transfer mechanism from Ytterbium to Thulium and thereby opening up the opportunity of using economic pump laser diodes emitting at around 0.98 μm. In this respect, both Thulium- and Thulium/Ytterbium-doped single-mode single-clad silica optical fibres are designed and fabricated for a systematic analysis before being used as laser gain media. The optical preforms having different host compositions, Thulium-ion concentrations and proportions of Ytterbium to Thulium are fabricated by using the Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition technique coupled with solution doping to enable the incorporation of rareearth ions into the preforms. A thorough investigation of the basic absorption and emission properties of Thulium-doped silica fibres has been performed. The step-wise energy-transfer parameters in Thulium/Ytterbium-doped silica fibre have been determined quantitatively from spectroscopic measurements along with migrationassisted energy-transfer model. A set of tuneable Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ lasers, offering a narrow line-width in the 2 μm wavelength region, is created by using fabricated Thulium-and Thulium/Ytterbium-doped fibres as gain media and fibre Bragg grating pairs under in-band pumping at 1.6 μm and/or pumping by an economical laser diode at 0.98 μm, utilizing Ytterbium to Thulium energy- transfer. The host composition and the dopnat concentration in the single-mode single-clad fibre configuration are optimized to achieve maximum lasing efficiency. The tuning of laser wavelength has been achieved by using relaxation/compression mechanism of the fibre Bragg grating pair used to confine the laser cavity. A new set of laser resonators has also been formed by using a combination of a high reflective fibre Bragg grating with a low reflective broadband mirror, fabricated at the end of the fibre through silver film deposition, to enable only one fibre Bragg grating to be tuned. The stability of the laser output power, line-width and shape have been monitored throughout the tuning range. This is followed by the design of a compact, high-Q, narrow line-width and low threshold microsphere laser resonator, operating in the 2 μm wavelength region, by coupling a Thulium-doped silica microsphere to a tapered fibre. In the microsphere, laser emission occurred at wavelengths over the range from 1.9 to 2.0 μm under excitation at a wavelength of around 1.6 μm. The designed modulated tuneable Thulium-doped ‘all-fibre’ laser, operating at a wavelength range centred at a wavelength of 1.995 μm, has been tested for CO2 gas detection. Both the modulation of the fibre laser, through pump source modulation and the ‘locking’ detection mechanism have been utilized to eliminate laser intensity noise and therefore to obtain a compact gas sensor with high sensitivity. The absorption spectrum, the line-strength and the concentration level of CO2, have been monitored using the absorption spectroscopic technique. The measured minimum detectable concentration of CO2 obtained using the system confirms the claim that it is capable of detecting trace gases at the ppm level. The stable laser performance achieved in the sensor system illustrates its potential for the development of practical, compact yet sensitive fibre laser based gas sensor systems.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

Control of levitated nanoparticles for sensing and characterisation

This thesis presents a study of the control of levitated nanoparticles and the utilisation for single nanoparticle characterisation and force sensing. This research focused on four areas, levitation of bipyramidal Yb3+ doped YLF nanocrystals, Levitodynamic spectroscopy, electrical feedback cooling with controlled cross-talk, and directional force sensing. Laser refrigeration of levitated Yb3+ doped YLF nanocrystals has been demonstrated previously. However, the Yb3+:YLF nanocrystals lacked consistency in shape. As part of this thesis, the capability for laser refrigeration of colloidally grown Yb3+:YLF nanocrystals was investigated. Whilst no laser refrigeration was measured, the wavelength-dependent heating observed could be used to examine the spectrally dependent absorption of a single levitated nanocrystal. In this thesis, a technique called Levitodynamic spectroscopy was developed to characterise nanoparticle morphology. This technique utilises the librational motion of an asymmetrical nanoparticle when levitated in linearly polarised light. This technique was experimentally verified by two sets of bipyramidal YLF nanocrystals. Levitodynamic spectroscopy can be employed to differentiate between nanocrystals and biological samples, with initial investigations with tobacco mosaic viruses presented. Velocity damping has previously been used to cool the centre of mass motion to the quantum ground state. This technique has been extended to cooling all three translational degrees of freedom. However, as the implementation can induce cross-talk between the mechanical modes, this thesis presents a new method of implementing velocity damping with minimal cross-talk. Directional force resolution is appealing for applications such as dark matter searches where directionality to the interaction is expected. In this thesis, the cross-correlation mechanical spectra were measured for a directional stochastic force. The cross-correlation spectra provide a distinct signature of the directional force without calibration

Integrated Gallium Phosphide Photonics

The integration of new materials mediating light-matter interaction in nanoscale devices is a persistent goal in nanophotonics. One of these materials is Gallium phosphide, which offers an attractive combination of a high refractive index (n=3.05 at a wavelength of 1550 nm) and a large bandgap (Eg =2.26 eV), enabling photonic devices with strongly confined light fields, not suffering from heating due to two-photon absorption at telecommunication wavelengths. Furthermore, due to its non-centrosymmetric crystal structure, it has a non-vanishing second-order susceptibility and is piezoelectric. Related to its large refractive index is a high third-order susceptibility. Prior to this work the use of GaP for photonic devices was limited to individual non-integrated components, as GaP was not available on a substrate with substantially lower refractive index equivalent to SOI-wafers for silicon. In this work a process was developed that allows the integration of GaP devices onto SiO2. It exploits direct wafer bonding of a GaP/AlxGa1-xP/GaP heterostructure onto a SiO2-on-Si wafer. After substrate removal, photonic devices are patterned by dry-etching in the top GaP device layer. The GaP devices investigated here are used to explore nonlinear optics and optomechanics. In the area of nonlinear optics, second- and third-harmonic generation are observed. The Kerr coefficient is experimentally estimated as n2[1550nm] = 1.2(5)x10^17m^2/W, for the first time in a precision measurement at telecommunication wavelengths. Four-wave mixing is used for broadband frequency comb generation, where a power threshold as low as 3 mW is obtained. The combination of four-wave mixing and second-harmonic generation leads to frequency-doubled combs. The optomechanical properties of GaP one-dimensional photonic crystal cavities are optimized by simulations and fabricated devices are characterized. Optical quality factors of Qo>10^5 and optomechanical coupling strengths of g0/2pi=400 kHz are measured. Dynamical backaction in the form of the spring effect and the parametric amplification are observed, as well as optomechanically induced transparency and absorption. A device design for a microwave-to-optical transducer is developed, relying on the piezoelectricity of GaP. It combines electromechanical and optomechanical transduction. The predicted electromechanical coupling strength is in the MHz range. Furthermore, photonic crystal cavity designs containing a slot at the center of the cavity are studied. According to simulations for slot widths below 30 nm, optomechanical coupling strengths g0/2pi>1 MHz could be achieved. Fabricated silicon photonic crystal cavities show high quality factors of Qo=8x10^4 while hosting a mechanical eigenmode with a frequency of 2.7 GHz. Because of process technology limitations, only slot widths as narrow as 40 nm can be fabricated, the achieved g0/2pi is limited to 300 kHz. The new GaP-on-insulator material platform opens the door to integrated GaP devices. Frequency combs are of interest for soliton comb formation, mid-IR frequency combs, and ultra-broadband supercontinuum generation. Microwave-to-optical transducers are on the one hand desired for quantum information processing, on the other hand they are applicable as efficient modulators or detectors for classical signals

Stimulated Brillouin Scattering in Integrated Circuits: Platforms and Applications

Coherent interactions between light and sound have been of significant interest since the invention of the laser. Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is a type of coherent interaction where light is scattered from optically generated acoustic waves. SBS is a powerful tool for optical and microwave signal processing, with applications ranging from telecommunications and Radar, to spatial sensing and microscopy. Over the last decade there has been increasing interest in the investigation of Brillouin scattering at device scales smaller than the wavelength of light. New interactions with the waveguide boundaries in these systems are capable of altering the strength of SBS, from complete suppression to orders of magnitude increases. The landmark demonstration of Brillouin scattering in planar waveguides, just six years ago, represents a new frontier for this field. This work explores the effective generation and harnessing of stimulated Brillouin scattering within modern photonic circuits. After establishing the foundations of linear and nonlinear optical circuits, we investigate the Brillouin processes available in multimode waveguides. We experimentally demonstrate giant Brillouin amplification using spiral waveguides consisting of soft-glass materials. We then integrate this soft-glass onto the standard platform for photonic circuits, silicon on insulator, without any reduction in performance. We apply these advanced devices to the field of microwave photonics and create high suppression microwave filters with functionality far beyond traditional electronic circuits. This thesis is a significant step towards Brillouin enabled integrated photonic processors

Silicon photonic crystals and spontaneous emission

Photonic crystals, i.e. materials that have a periodic variation in refractive index, form an interesting new class of materials that can be used to modify spontaneous emission and manipulate optical modes in ways that were impossible so far. This thesis is divided in three parts. Part I discusses the design and fabrication of two-dimensional photonic crystals in silicon using deep anisotropic etching with a SF6/O2 plasma. The etching process was optimized for the fabrication of two-dimensional photonic crystals by tuning the main parameters of the etching process, i.e. temperature, bias voltage and O2 flow. Vertical confinement in these structures is provided by integrating the structures in a dielectric waveguide. For this purpose, amorphous silicon, silicon-on-insulator and SiGe structures were considered. Fabrication of structures in both amorphous silicon and silicon-on-insulator was successfully demonstrated. The incorporation of luminescent species, such as laser dyes, was demonstrated using a new wet chemical coating technique that forms thin silica layers on a substrate. Part II discusses the modification of spontaneous emission in one dimensional systems by studying the decay rate of luminescing Cr ions close to a dielectric interface. The decay rate of the Cr ions can be changed by bringing the samples into contact with a range of liquids with different refractive indices. The change in radiative decay rate can be calculated by calculating the local density of states. To explain the experimental results additional non-radiative decay channels have to be introduced and yields a quantum efficiency of ~50% for the Cr R-line luminescence. This concept was further extended to a thin silica layer on silicon implanted with erbium ions and resulted in the radiative rate of erbium in pure silica: 54 s-1. This number was used to analyze the decay rate of erbium ions in silica colloidal spheres that can be used as building block for three-dimensional photonic crystals by self-assembly. Finally, Part III discusses the optical properties and modified spontaneous emission from a three-dimensional silicon photonic crystal of finite (5-layers) thickness. The crystals are made in a layer-by-layer approach using lithographic tools and show near 100% reflection in the 1.4-1.7 mu m wavelength range indicative of a photonic stopgap. A direct comparison with the calculated reflectivity reveals that some features in the reflectivity can be ascribed to the finite thickness of the crystal, while other features can be explained in terms of a superstructure that leads to zone folding of the photonic bandstructure. The collected spontaneous emission from erbium implanted crystals is strongly reduced for wavelengths in the stopgap from 1.4-1.7 mu m. The changes in collected luminescence intensity are explained in terms of a rate equation model that takes into account the effect of Bragg scattering, the local density of states and the quantum efficiency of the emitters inside the crystal. Using this model a spectral attenuation of 5 dB per unit cell at 1.539 mu m wavelength is obtained from the experimental data, which is in perfect agreement with existing theory and transmission data