Loginio ir kalbinio taisyklingumo įtaka mąstymo pokyčiams

The concept of thinking is an area of interest for researchers in a wide variety of disciplines: humanities, social and natural sciences. Unlike neurobiologists, who use special technologies to examine human brain activity, the scientists in humanities (philosophers and those of logic) research thinking only through language. The language itself is not only the means for capturing thought and its expression, but also one of the most important elements of culture. Each language, with its own system of words, vowels and grammar, is not only a unique source of knowledge about human life, but also the indicator and symbol of cultural identity. The changes in the language do not occur without reason, because every language is developing along with the economy, culture, science and technology. Thinking and language are very closely related processes, thus, for evaluation of changes in thinking, in this article it is assumed that changes made in language reflect the changes in thinking. Furthermore, this paper discusses features of thought expression, the conception of linguistic as well as logical levels of a sentence, the differences in logical validity and linguistic correctness and their influence on the changes of thinking in the light of the contemporary understanding of language and its relationship to thinking.Mąstymas domina ne tik humanitarinių mokslų tyrinėtojus, bet, kitaip nei neurobiologai, žmogaus smegenų veiklos analizei taikantys specialius tyrimo metodus ir technologijas, humanitarai gali pasiekti mąstymą tik per kalbą. Todėl filosofai ir logikai tiria mąstymą, išreikštą kalba. Tačiau kalba nėra vien tik priemonė mintims fiksuoti ar reikšti. Kiekviena kalba su savąja garsų, gramatikos ir žodyno sistema yra vienas svarbiausių kultūros elementų, ne tik unikalus žinių apie žmonių gyvenimą šaltinis, bet ir bendruomenės tapatybės rodiklis bei simbolis. Kalbos kitimai nevyksta be priežasties, nes kiekviena kalba vystosi kartu su ekonomika, kultūra, mokslo ir technologijų tobulėjimu. Kadangi kalba ir mąstymas yra glaudžiai susiję, tai, ieškant kriterijų mąstymo pokyčių tyrimui, šiame straipsnyje daroma prielaida, kad kalbos pakitimai liudija ir mąstymo kitimą. Šiuolaikinės kalbos ir mąstymo santykio problemos sampratos kontekste aptariami minties išraiškos kalboje ypatumai bei sakinio kalbinio ir loginio lygmenų santykis, nagrinėjamas loginio ir kalbinio taisyklingumo sampratų skirtingumas ir jo įtaka mąstymo pokyčiams

Autoritarizmo veiksniai ir diagnostikos priemonės

Not enough attention within the field of social sciences is paid to the problem of authoritarianism. In spite of the fact that this theme has not been deeply analysed, some of the evidence allows us to think that an authoritarian way of mind is usual for the inhabitants of our country. In this article the features of the development of authoritarianism are studied from a multidisciplinary point of view, revealing its existence in the modern organization of Lithuanian labour. In this article the groups of factors which have the biggest influence on the existence of authoritarian relations (human factors, close environment and macro environment), performed research and studies of the 20th century, diagnostic tools are studied, the need for research on the development of authoritarianism within modern Lithuania is substantiated. Theoretical analysis performed in this article revealed differences and even discrepancies between different scientific theories, studies and researching strategies. Most of the scientists look for the reasons in personal features, behaviour, life experience. The other scientists concentrate on the culture of internal relations within organizations. Some of the scientists say that not only personal features influence personality, but also behaviour, the close environment, which means that most probably permanent mutual interaction between human and environmental factors takes place in this phenomenon. There is no unanimous opinion of what indicators should be chosen for the evaluation of this phenomenon. Their different compositions cause different results. Research experience shows that this phenomenon is influenced by many factors. Personal features cannot be separated from others factors which have influence on authoritarianism, such as the internal culture of organization, relations, etc., including macro factors which sometimes are even more important than personal features. That means that the union of these factors at an exact location and time gives different synergetic effects. It would be expedient to perform a study on intercultural authoritarian relations, which would allow testing of the universality and predictive interpretational power of traditional theories.Autoritarizmo problemai socialinių mokslų srityje skiriama nepakankamai dėmesio. Nors ši tema Lietuvoje nėra nuodugniai išnagrinėta, yra mokslininkų, pradedančių analizuoti tam tikras autoritarizmo apraiškas ir teigiančių, kad mūsų šalies gyventojams itin būdingi autoritariniai santykiai, autoritarinis mąstymas. Šiame straipsnyje multidisciplininiu požiūriu analizuojami autoritarizmo apraiškų ypatumai. Per didžiausią įtaką autoritarinių santykių egzistavimui turinčias veiksnių grupes – asmenybinius veiksnius, artimąją bei išorinę, t. y. šalies socialinę ir psichologinę, aplinką – analizuojami XX a. atlikti tyrimai ir studijos, diagnostikos priemonės, pagrindžiamas autoritarizmo apraiškų tyrinėjimo poreikis šiuolaikinėje Lietuvoje

Retomis ligomis sergančių pacientų teisinės galimybės gydytis neregistruotais vaistais

In the European Union (EU), medicines can be marketed only after they have been authorised. However, some medicines need to be accessible before they have been authorised. This especially applies to medicines, which are expected to benefit severely ill patients who cannot be treated with authorised medicines or who have a disease for which no medicine has been authorised yet. The treatment with unauthorised medicines may be the last chance for patients who suffer from rare diseases and cannot enrol in an ongoing clinical trial or be treated with a potentially life-saving medicine. The aim of this article is to analyse the aspects of the legal regulation of access to unauthorised medicines for such patients. The fact that 27–36 million patients with rare diseases live in the EU and there are approximately 200,000–240,000 of such patients in Lithuania underlines the relevance of the study. The first part of the article analyses the EU legal provisions, which govern the so called “named patient” programmes for single patient use under the Article 5 of Directive 2001/83/ EC (ex Article 3.1 of Directive 1989/341/EEC) and “compassionate use” programmes for a group of patients set out in the Article 83 of Regulation (EC) No 726/2004. Upon the introduction of these legal exceptions into the national law, medicines intended for the treatment of rare diseases can reach patients more quickly and easily. The national legal regulation of patient access to unauthorised medicines differs by country, because EC regulations define only the general principles. Therefore, access to new investigational medicines depends on the country where the patient resides. This means that patients are not always able to access medicines that would be of benefit to them. As a consequence, their lives can be endangered. Such a situation is inequitable. The second part of the article reviews the legal framework of access to unauthorised medicines in Lithuania. Patients are able to access medicines approved in other countries for a genuine, unmet medical need before the drugs are licensed in Lithuania. The treatment, however, with investigational drugs for individual patients and for groups of patients who are unable to participate in clinical trials and suffer from rare, life-threatening diseases is not regulated. According to the author, the Law on Pharmacy of the Republic of Lithuania must be supplemented with such important exceptions. The third part of the article addresses the question why patients have no access to potentially life saving post-Phase I investigational new drugs. The article considers the margins of personal autonomy principle in the light of the problem of accessibility to unapproved medicinal products intended for treatment of rare diseases. In the summary of the findings of the article, the author emphasize the need for joint approach of EU Member States to availability of unauthorised medicinal products for orphan patients.Retoms ligoms gydyti skirtų vaistų prieinamumo klausimas į Europos Sąjungos (ES) teisės reguliavimo sritį prieš dešimtmetį pateko siekiant paskatinti jų kūrimą ir taip padėti užtikrinti geresnę retomis ligomis sergančių pacientų sveikatos priežiūrą. Tuo tikslu prieš keletą metų ES lygiu priimtos ir teisės normos dėl pacientų galimybių gydytis dar tiriamu – taigi neregistruotu vaistiniu preparatu, jei jie serga retomis, sunkiomis, gyvybei gresiančiomis ligomis ir negali dalyvauti to vaisto klinikiniame tyrime, o kitų gydymo alternatyvų nėra. Straipsnyje taikant istorinį, lyginamąjį, dokumentų analizės, sintezės bei apibendrinimo metodus, remiantis ES ir nacionalinių teisės aktų normomis bei JAV sveikatos teisės doktrina ir jurisprudencija analizuojami retomis ligomis sergančių pacientų teisinių galimybių gydytis neregistruotais vaistais ypatumai, probleminiai aspektai. Siekiama atskleisti neregistruotų vaistų prieinamumo būdų skirtumus, reikšmę, išsiaiškinti, kodėl ne visi iš galimų šių vaistų prieinamumo būdų yra teisėti, svarstoma, kodėl ne visose šalyse jie įteisinti ir veikia