How do text type, prior vocabulary knowledge, and working memory capacity affect second language incidental vocabulary learning through reading?

Incidental vocabulary learning through reading may be influenced by a range of learner-internal as well as learner-external factors. This study, specifically, examined the potential impacts of three factors: text type, prior L2 vocabulary knowledge, and working memory capacity. Forty-six 1st grade high school students in Korea completed a battery of tests: (a) the Vocabulary Levels Test and (b) a reading span task as measures of prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity, respectively. All the participants read two texts (one narrative and one expository) containing pseudowords and completed two reading comprehension tasks. Immediately after reading and again two days later, two measures of vocabulary gains were administered: (a) a form recognition test and (b) a meaning recognition test. The results revealed that the narrative text was more effective in aiding L2 vocabulary acquisition in the long term than the expository text. Both prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity played facilitative roles in the lexical inferencing process and retention, but working memory capacity had much stronger effects throughout all the posttests. A significant interaction between text type and working memory capacity was also observed, suggesting that the text type effective for incidental learning differed according to learners’ individual differences in language learning aptitude. Some implications for designing the classes that implement incidental vocabulary learning are discussed

Learner-generated content, task engagement, affective response, and memory on technology-mediated conversation tasks

This study provides insight into the role of learner-generated content (LGC) in affective response and engagement during interactive tasks on a video conferencing platform. It also examines task content, affect and conation with respect to recall of the language used on tasks. The performances of four learners on recommendation tasks are analyzed in detail, comparing LGC with teacher-generated content (TGC). Results reveal that when listening to technology-mediated recommendations based on LGC, the information-receivers in the study took a more active role in the online tasks, interacted more with the speakers, displayed more positive emotions, felt more interested and focused, and were better able to recall the language and content that the speakers used. The results also revealed that the impact of LGC was consistent across learners of different first languages (Chinese, Indonesian), genders (female, male) and cultures (Confucian, Muslim) and that the effect of LGC in one technology-mediated context was comparable to the effects of LGC documented in previous research in face-to-face contexts. The study expands research on the role of the learner in task-based language teaching to measures of affect via facial analysis as well as language retention by learners in the receptive role of technology-mediated interactive tasks

The effect of executive functions on word reading among students with Chinese as a second language (CSL)

Executive functions (EF) have long been recognized as critical factors in accounting for individual differences in literacy development. However, their role in second language (L2) learning, particularly in non-alphabetic languages such as Chinese, has not been fully explored. This study endeavored to examine the role of EF in word reading among 200 Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners in Hong Kong. Participants completed a series of tasks measuring EF components, including inhibition, visual working memory, verbal working memory, and cognitive shifting, as well as tasks assessing their word reading abilities, which encompassed both single-character reading and two-character word reading. The contributions of EF to the total word reading score, single-character reading, and two-character word reading were analyzed. The results demonstrated that visual working memory and inhibition emerged as unique and significant predictors. Moreover, EF explained a greater proportion of variance in two-character word reading compared to single-character reading, suggesting that the cognitive demands of reading two-character words in Chinese differ from those of single-character reading. Additionally, we examined the moderating effect of age on the relationship between EF and word reading. No significant moderating effect was found, indicating a constant contribution of EF to word reading across different age groups among CSL learners. These findings offer valuable theoretical insights into the role of EF in L2 literacy development and suggest practical pedagogical strategies for enhancing word reading skills among CSL learners

A person-specific perspective on the dynamics of anxiety in foreign language learning: A dynamic P-technique factor analysis

In the field of second and foreign language (L2) anxiety studies, which are predominantly group-based, the role of individual-level inner workings of L2 anxiety has been neglected. Emerging evidence in L2 learning underscores that while aggregating data from a large number of learners reveals general trends, this approach often overlooks the distinct characteristics inherent in each individual’s data. For this reason, specialists have emphasized the necessity of illuminating unique and individualized experiences of L2 anxiety, both in short- and long-term evaluations. The present study aimed to grasp person-specific variation in L2 anxiety in Sara, an adult female L2 learner. In a year-long ecological momentary assessment study design, Sara provided daily replies to an online questionnaire about L2 anxiety. Using the dynamic P-technique, this research explored how Sara’s L2 anxiety ratings on a given day impacted or predicted her rating on the following day and the consistency of her evaluations over time. Results revealed that a four-factor structure best represented her daily L2 anxiety, comprising lack of self-confidence (LSC), fear of negative evaluation (FNE), performance anxiety (PA), and negative attitude toward language learning (NA). It was observed that on days when Sara experienced higher-than-usual LSC and FNE, her return to equilibrium was slower compared to days with heightened PA or NA. Additionally, despite daily fluctuations in the four subfactors, these factors appeared immune to fluctuations in predictor levels and did not immediately affect other subfactors. Moreover, LSC, FNE, PA, and NA exhibited positive feedback loops, where each subfactor could potentially predict another in subsequent states

Positive psychology in L2 speaking: The predictive roles of foreign language speaking enjoyment, the ideal L2 speaking self, and L2 speaking grit

This study investigates the impact of positive psychology factors on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ second language (L2) speaking proficiency. Specifically, it examines the predictive roles of foreign language speaking enjoyment, the ideal L2 speaking self, and L2 speaking grit on L2 speaking proficiency. Data were collected from 271 EFL learners enrolled in IELTS speaking courses, utilizing validated scales and IELTS-based speaking tasks. Through structural equation modeling, relationships between psychological constructs and L2 speaking proficiency were analyzed. The results showed significant direct relationships between speaking enjoyment and L2 speaking proficiency, as well as between the ideal speaking self and proficiency. Crucially, L2 speaking grit was found to partially mediate the relationships between both enjoyment and L2 speaking proficiency, as well as the ideal self and L2 speaking proficiency. These findings underscore the importance of positive psychological factors in language learning, particularly highlighting the significant interplay of enjoyment, the ideal self, and grit in fostering L2 speaking development. The study provides insights for teachers, emphasizing the need to incorporate strategies that cultivate positive emotions, support the development of learners’ ideal L2 speaking self, and promote resilience in the face of challenges, ultimately leading to improved speaking skills

To lead or not to lead: The fluctuation of peer leadership in collaborative oral argumentation

Working with peers in small groups is conducive to learning, and collaborative learning has been widely adopted in second language classrooms. Leadership, defined as the initiative taken to influence others in a group, plays a significant role in successful teamwork, but has not received due attention in research on collaborative peer work. To address this research gap, we conducted a case study in a university English as a foreign language classroom in China in which the participants navigated their oral argumentation tasks collaboratively. The current study offers insight into the fluctuation of peer leadership in collaborative oral argumentation based on group discussion and semi-structured interview data. The findings suggest that peer leadership is a dynamic process that fluctuates in function and individual contribution over time. The study also revealed that peer leadership is a complex process influenced by multiple factors, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and task-related ones. In conclusion, we stress that, to optimize collaborative peer learning, teachers should strive to stimulate and nurture the emergence of leadership and provide space for its long-term development

Trends in language assessment and testing: A bibliometric study

The current bibliometric study employed citation analysis and keyword analysis to perform a review of language assessment and testing. Based on citation counts and keywords, this study identified the recent trends/changes and the most influential regions, institutions, scholars, and publications in the field. In addition, the intellectual structures of the field reviewed by the network maps of the most influential documents and scholars showed how these eminent documents and authors were related to each other. It was found that the field experienced significant changes with the emergence of new scholars, research themes, and topics. This study is also a tribute to hundreds of scholarly documents in the field, which keep the field moving forward

Exploring peer emotion transmission in foreign language classrooms: A social psychological investigation using mixed methods

Drawing on theories of interpersonal emotion transfer (Parkinson, 2020) and the control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006), the present research employed a mixed-methods approach to examine how emotions are transmitted among peers in foreign language (FL) classrooms. We collected quantitative data from 308 freshmen using self-report questionnaires and qualitative data from 18 freshmen using semi-structured interviews. Results of structural equation modeling showed that students’ perceptions of peer FL enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom were positively related to their own corresponding emotions. Both control and value appraisals partially mediated the relations between perceived peer FL enjoyment and anxiety and students’ corresponding emotions. However, value appraisal was the only significant mediator of the relation between perceived peer FL boredom and student boredom. Interview findings further supported the operation of emotion contagion and social appraisal in FL peer emotion transmission. In addition, the qualitative data revealed that perceptions of peer FL emotions may also activate students’ discordant emotions as a result of social comparison processes. The interpretation of the findings is discussed along with future directions and pedagogical implications

The relationship between complexity, accuracy and fluency in L2 English speech: Individual differences and dynamic patterns

This study examined the relationship between complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF), using longitudinal data. Conducted from the perspective of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST), this research adopted four CAF general measures to track the development of five Chinese undergraduates’ English speech over a 15-week period. LOWESS graphs supported by correlation analyses showed that there were individual differences in CAF relations. Different trade-off effects were found in the CAF development of four individuals. One learner improved in lexical complexity at the expense of accuracy, another learner improved in accuracy at the cost of lexical complexity, one student made progress in syntactic complexity but sacrificed fluency, and one improved in accuracy and lexical complexity while compromising fluency and syntactic complexity, respectively. Furthermore, the use of moving correlations demonstrated that CAF relations changed dynamically over time, revealing eight identified change patterns. These patterns exhibited varying degrees of variability, ranging from highest to medium to low-medium to lowest. Six patterns involved state changes, transitioning from a competitive to supportive relationship, for example