Environmental injustices in Robinson Jeffers’s and Denise Levertov’s ecopoetry

This thesis explores critiques of environmental injustices in the poetry of Robinson Jeffers (1887-1962) and Denise Levertov (1923-1997). The anthropocentrism typical of American culture constantly imposes hierarchal division and underestimation of otherness which cause injustices to people and nonhumans. In urban, war, and natural environments, the poets investigate the impact of modernity, imperialism, and environmental degradation on changing environmental conditions and ecological wholeness. Jeffers and Levertov establish in their poetry a shared trajectory where they start with a description of injustices and their destructive impacts, progress towards a condemnation of the politics behind these injustices, and propose alternative ecological values. In their trajectories of critique across these three contexts, their poetry attempts to bridge the divide between the city and nature, between the Americans and the Vietnamese, and between humans and nonhumans. It provides a model for the reconstruction of anthropocentrism toward ecological relations of integrity. Their poetry reveals situations of the environmental ‘unconscious’ and attempts to draw a vision of environmental imagination and justice. Chapter 1 of the thesis registers Jeffers’s response to modernity. It explores his presentation of the city as a centre for accumulating change and corruption that separates man from nature. He presents the struggle of presence within the confinement of urbanization, mechanization, and rapid changes against human instinctual freedom and cultural values, a crisis he resists with his philosophy of Inhumanism. Instead, he urges a withdrawal to nature where he affirms in the landscape timeless and holistic values as contrasting models to human values. Chapter 2 investigates Levertov’s account of the Vietnam War as breeding violence and destruction to people's safety and emotional wellness. She presents victimization, loss, and emotional stasis which she supports with her political poetry of resistance. She encourages empathy, solidarity, and the need to maintain safety for others. Chapter 3 traces the poets’ presentations of exploitation, destruction, and cruelty to land and animals in their poetry. In the poems, both poets point out nonhuman forces that wrestle with humanity's injustices which they represent through myth and figuration. In their presentation of nonhumans, they highlight existing ideologies that underestimate nonhumans and seek in their poetry to affirm nonhuman agency and consciousness. In my investigation of their critique of injustices, my thesis draws on recent developments and turns of ecocriticism. It reframes the poets’ critiques through Environmental Justice theory, looking at human alienation in the city, the victimization of people in the Vietnam War, the exploitation of lands, and the cruelty to animals as environmental injustices. Under these thematic discussions, my thesis analyses the affective forces that emerge in response to injustices across these contexts. Jeffers’s presentation of the hopelessness of people in the city, Levertov’s depiction of the victimized emotions in Vietnam, and their presentation of nonhuman struggle in the degraded environments underscore the poets’ awareness of the notion of interdependency in the universe. The thesis also demonstrates the material forces of nonhumans that wrestle with human denial of them and affirm their existence instead. These recent developments in ecocriticism, which resonate with the poets’ critiques, elucidate the fundamental dynamics of existence and challenge the anthropocentric ideology that fosters such injustices

An approach for monetisation of social impacts accruing from rural roads

This PhD thesis is about finding the best methodology to be used in attaching value to social benefits accruing from rural roads through Monetisation of social benefits and costs. This PhD thesis specifically discusses the valuation of social benefits in monetary terms. The monetization of social benefits may be used in prioritizing maintenance of rural roads in low-income countries a process currently not taken care of by many available valuation methodologies. The closest of these is the Road Economic Decision Model (RED), a World Bank methodology which considers low volume roads but not rural roads with traffic volumes less than 50 vehicles per day. The thesis consists of literature review on the methodology techniques, proposed methodology for carrying out the research, the case study to assess the implementation of the proposed methodology and a discussion on the findings as well as the recommendations for further research. The available literature indicates that Sub-Saharan Africa has approximately 700,000 kilometres of rural roads, with half of them in poor condition. These rural roads however are characterized by poor maintenance regimes, low funding and in many instances limited management. Despite inadequate maintenance, rural roads contribute significantly to the economic and social development of the areas they traverse as well as provision of access to markets and amenities such as schools, health centers, religious centers, tourism centers and farmlands. Despite rural roads being drivers of development in the communities they serve, decision makers are reluctant to allocate adequate funding for the improvement and maintenance. The literature also shows that there is no dedicated monetizing methodology for social benefits accruing from rural roads, however there are a number of techniques in use for other sectors such as environment, water and agriculture. In lieu of this, there is need to develop a methodology which can be used to monetize the social benefit from rural roads. Based on the theory of change process, the outcomes are assessed, and the associated impacts as well as the social return on investments (SROI) ratio are calculated. The SROI ration measures the value of the benefits or costs in line with the investment in monetary terms. To demonstrate the effectiveness of SROI technique, a case study in Kamuli district in Uganda was adopted, field work carried out using survey tools and the respective data collected and collated for analysis. Results for all ten roads surveyed indicated positive correlation in the figures obtained through SROI calculations. The results provided proof that SROI can be used to monetise social benefits accruing from rural roads. It’s however, important to note that monetization based on SROI is not void of limitations. There is need to validate the data inputs, analysis and modelling. Valuation of social benefits should be considered as an ongoing process other than an event. Therefore, Monetisation of social benefit for a given community be carried out regularly

Application of Nanomaterials in Precision Agriculture to Optimise Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Increase Global Food Security

Engineered nanomaterials (NM) are man-made nanoscale compounds, with at least one dimension between 1-100nm. Their utilisation presents a novel method to reduce the excessive use of synthetic fertiliser prevalent in industrial agriculture. The excess synthetic fertilisers are lost through the gaseous emission of N compounds, including N2O, NH3 and NOY, as well as through surface run-off and groundwater losses, increasing NO3- and NH4+ concentrations in waterways, impacting water quality. For NMs to be effective and sustainably used in agriculture there are several essential considerations that must be optimised: increased crop productivity and quality; positive effects on nutrient biogeochemical cycling, particularly N cycling to reduce emissions and run-off; and limiting impacts on soil biota including microbes and soil fauna, like earthworms. The effects of NM exposure on seed germination were tested using seed priming experiments. NM effects were both species and NM dependent, although trends within “classes” of NMs were hard to predict, with constituent elements, concentration, agglomerate size, zeta potential and more sophisticated structure, like pore size, all impacting NM-plant interactions. NM application to soils in conjunction with reduced fertiliser application was used to determine NMs effects on plant growth and N cycling, using N2O gas sampling and N compound losses in leachate. Zeolite NMs can have very different effects on terrestrial N cycling, with the sophisticated structure of the NM likely the root cause of these differences. Zeolites of the same type, like BEA-19 and BEA-150, were used in different soils and had very different impacts on N emissions and losses, reflecting the importance of NM characteristics, on NM environmental effects. BEA-150 triggered elevated N2O emissions in the presence of microbes, while ZSM-5-15, another zeolite, decreased emissions in this soil type and increased them in another. This is indicative of the importance of soil abiotic factors, like soil moisture, clay and colloids, and soil microbial community composition on NM effect. Increased N2O emissions may be generated through a process of ion exchange, with ZSM-5-15’s extra-framework ion being exchanged for H+ ions in its pores, leading to an increase in NH4+ accessible for nitrifying microbes to act upon and increasing nitrification derived N2O. Wider effects of NMs on the soil environment were studied using earthworm reproduction assays. ZSM-5-15 also triggered sub-lethal effects on reproduction of the earthworm Eisenia fetida, reducing the number of unhatched cocoons at 25 mg L-1, a relatively low concentration. This may be through lower concentrations producing smaller NM agglomerates that are more able to pass through the worm epithelia and thus result in higher exposure at lower concentrations. Ce0.75Zr0.25O2 NMs didn’t increase N2O emissions in the loam soil studied but did in the sandy loam, also increasing NO3- leachate concentration. Ce0.75Zr0.25O2 leaches Zr4+ ions into soil, transforming the NM into Ce0.9Zr0.1O2 and CeO2, as determined using X-ray near-edge absorption spectroscopy (XANES). Ce0.75Zr0.25O2 is able to translocate from lettuce roots to shoots, with the NM found in aboveground lettuce tissue after soil-based NM application. Zr metal and ZrCl4 were also found to be present in lettuce leaves, but whether these transformations occur in the soil before uptake and translocation or in lettuce shoots and leaves after uptake is uncertain. Other nano metal oxides used were TiO2 PVP and Co2.25Fe0.75O4 which were both applied in hydroponic medium. NM impact on N2O emissions from hydroponics was minimal, however K15NO3 stable isotope application showed that the majority of the N2O emissions were nitrification derived. This reflects the aeration of the rockwool substrate that the lettuce roots were grown in. TiO2 PVP and Co2.25Fe0.75O4 NMs may act on denitrifying microbes hence the minimal impact they have on total N2O emissions. NM co-application with synthetic fertiliser was found to increase the risk of N losses to the environment, while NMs with nutrients as part of their physical structure may be able to limit these losses. Urea-doped amorphous calcium phosphate (U-ACP), a hydroxyapatite NM with both N and P within its structure, was able to reduce NOY emissions from soil. The lack of N2O and NH3 gas data however means that there are several N cycling endpoints that are missed, so whether U-ACP application reduces net N losses or shifts the balance of the soil N cycle is unknown. U-ACP increased lettuce production as compared to urea, with this mostly being derived from urea application triggering soil acidification and limiting lettuce growth. U-ACP application also increased the community of nitric oxide reductase (qNorB in particular) expressing soil bacteria, indicative of an increase in the soil microbial community active in denitrification. Understanding NM impacts on N cycling is essential for a holistic view of fertilisation and for nano-enabled agriculture to truly increase sustainability while minimising the risk of regrettable substitutions. This thesis presents a first step towards achieving this holistic view

Mathematical modelling of hydrocortisone replacement therapy

Cortisol is a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands and is responsible for multiple processes in the body, including regulating blood pressure and sugar and managing the sleep/wake cycle. Adrenal insufficiency is a condition characterised by inadequate production of cortisol resulting in symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and weight loss. Hormone replacement therapy attempts to artificially regulate cortisol for patients with adrenal insufficiency, however this treatment is rarely personalised to an individual. In this thesis we develop mathematical models to predict hormone dynamics after the delivery of hydrocortisone (the term for cortisol delivered as a medication). We apply these models to assess differences in cortisol response after two commonly used delivery methods, namely a continuous intravenous infusion regime (CIV), and regular intravenous bolus injections (BIV). We fit these models to published experimental data from an in-patient study. Driven by the desire to study the most parsimonious model that contains the dominant processes affecting blood cortisol levels, the models consider the substantial role of binding protein in changing cortisol dynamics, as well as its effects on excretion. For simplicity, other metabolic processes and distribution across physiological compartments (such as organs or tissues) are neglected. The resulting models comprise five free parameters common to both delivery modes. Additionally, by exploiting the disparity of time scales in the system we obtain asymptotically reduced models of each delivery mode, involving just four free parameters. One critically important (but often neglected) aspect of models of this type is the desire to recover unique parameter values upon fitting to experimental data. We assess both the structural and practical identifiability of the derived models, highlighting those parameters which can be reliably inferred and those which cannot. We find that the models are practically identifiable for all model parameters except the binding and unbinding rates. This limitation is mitigated by the relative lack of sensitivity of cortisol dynamics to the precise value of these rates; instead it is the ratio of binding versus unbinding that governs dynamics. In all cases (except in the addition of significant noise) this ratio is shown to be practically recoverable. We further consider the question of whether low time-resolution measurements of combined concentrations of free and bound circulating cortisol enable model parameters to be uniquely estimated and/or inferred. Finally, the models are fitted using both frequentist and Bayesian approaches, the latter having the added benefit of providing estimates regarding the uncertainty in the parameters which affect the dynamics. Parameter estimates from fitting the BIV model alone, and both BIV and CIV models simultaneously show good agreement, but differ from fitting only the CIV model. These differences highlight the advantage of integrating data from multiple modes of delivery to extract the dominant mechanisms of cortisol response thereby offering the potential to tailor treatments specific to an individual patient

Occurrence, human exposure, and risk of microplastics in indoor environments

Microplastics (MPs), tiny plastic particles less than 5 mm in size, have become a significant environmental concern due to their widespread presence and potential health impacts, especially in indoor sites. This thesis investigates MPs occurrence, concentrations, and characteristics (i.e., size, shape, and polymer type) in indoor air (airborne and atmospheric deposition) and settled indoor dust in Birmingham, UK. The measured MPs concentrations are then used to estimate exposure of UK adults and toddlers to MPs via inhalation and inadvertent dust ingestion in UK homes and workplaces for the first time. Moreover, potential seasonal variation in indoor MPs concentration and estimated daily intakes were studied for the first time, over a 12-month monitoring period in 5 indoor microenvironments. In this thesis, analytical protocols have been developed and quality assured to minimize contamination during sampling/clean-up stages and accurately determine MPs in indoor air and dust samples. A digital fluorescence microscope has been applied to determine the size, shape, and count of MPs particles as physical properties. Additionally, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (μ-FTIR) was applied to identify the polymer types as chemical properties. The analyses revealed the presence of fibers, fragments, and foams of varying sizes. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene (PP) were identified as the most prevalent polymer types in the studied samples. Particles in the size range (10 – 50 μm) were the most abundant in airborne MPs, while larger MPs (50 – 100 μm) were more frequently detected in atmospheric deposition and settled indoor dust samples. The study of MPs in UK indoor air and inhalation exposure via active and passive air sampling from 30 homes and 30 workplaces is the first and most comprehensive study in this scope. 120 samples were investigated, and the mean concentrations of MPs in UK homes were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those in workplaces for both active and passive air samples. Airborne MPs concentrations were observed in homes (15.6 ± 5.4 MPs/m3) compared to workplaces (13.1 ± 6.5 MPs/m3). For atmospheric deposition samples, the average MPs concentrations were 3735 ± 1343 MP/m2/day in homes and 3177 ± 1860 MP/m2/day in workplaces. Similarly, higher concentrations of MPs were measured in settled indoor dust from homes (155 ± 222 MPs/mg), compared to workplaces (125 ± 209 MPs/mg) sampled in the present study. This was mainly attributed to carpeting, where all the sampled homes were carpeted, while 13 of the studied workplaces were uncarpeted. The seasonal variation study revealed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in mean concentrations of MPs in indoor air and settled dust among the studied seasons for the first time. All sampling locations experienced the highest concentrations of MPs during the summer months, while significantly lower levels were observed in autumn and spring, which was reflected in significantly different estimated daily intakes of MPs in different seasons. This is of particular importance to exposure and risk assessment studies because it raises concern over the representativity and comparability of existing human exposure data from different studies based on single “spot” samples collected from various indoor microenvironments in different seasons. Overall, Estimated daily intakes of UK toddlers to MPs were substantially higher than those for adults via both inhalation and inadvertent dust ingestion in all seasons and using different exposure scenarios. The is of concern due to toddlers’ incompletely developed immune and nervous systems. Therefore, more effort and prompt actions are required to reduce MPs levels in UK indoor microenvironment to protect our population, particularly vulnerable groups like toddlers, from potential risks associated with exposure to MPs indoors

Enhancing structural performance of concrete structures with recycled steel fibers through improved mechanical, dynamic, and shear properties

This thesis explores the potential of recycled steel fibres (RSF) as an innovative and environmentally friendly reinforcement material for concrete, addressing the urgent need for cost-effective and sustainable alternatives in the construction industry. RSF, sourced from discarded tires and construction waste, can partially replace industrial steel fibres (ISF), offering benefits such as cost reduction, lower carbon emissions, and enhanced structural strength. This dual advantage not only mitigates environmental pollution but also conserves resources. The first part of the thesis involves a comprehensive study of the engineering characteristics of RSF, including its mechanical properties, dynamic performance, and structural shear resistance. An essential part of the study is the development of a set of improved shear capacity prediction formulas for high strength steel fibre concrete (HSFRC) beams, based on modifications to the TR63 standard. Additionally, the cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis was conducted to evaluate the carbon footprint of RSF. In the second part, the thesis focuses on modelling and predicting the overall performance of HSFRC beams using experimental data and machine learning techniques. Various machine learning (ML) models were employed to predict key parameters, and finite element modelling (FEM) was used to establish the mechanical behaviour model. Surrogate models were developed to streamline the modelling process, ensuring quick and accurate parameter estimation. With the help of reliable collected experimental database, the study provides a thorough analysis of the reliability of HSFRC beams, offering recommendations to balance safety and economic efficiency. The research also presents a simplified model for assessing the performance of HSFRC beams in corrosive environments, highlighting the material's time-dependent reliability. In summary, RSF emerges as a possible, low-cost, and sustainable substitute for ISF, which has enormous implications for the construction sector

A neo-Aristotelian theory of emulation: Implications for cultivating teacher character through role modelling

This thesis expounds a new theory of emulation qua moral role modelling and suggests how it could be applied as a method of virtuous character development in the professional context of teaching. Through a synthesis of reconstructed neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics, current developmental moral psychology and qualitative empirical insights, it builds upon work by eminent philosophers, psychologists and educationists to enhance the understanding of what emulation is, conceptually speaking, and how it works as a developmental process. My central argument addresses how the methodological tensions surrounding emulation are grounded in a category mistake: the misconceptualisation of emulation as merely an emotion, rather than, as I argue, a moral virtue in its own right. Predominantly composed of virtuous emotion and necessarily entailing virtuous action, I thus propose a componential account of the virtue of emulation, which I synthesise with Aristotle’s theory of causation: the four causes. Historically revered for their explanatory power, I argue that appeal to the four causes enables one to better understand emulation as a quadripartite causal process. Through doing so, I make visible the importance of phronesis to emulation and accordingly introduce a new concept – entangled phronesis – as the psycho-moral mechanism which underpins it. As entangled phronesis works differently according to a learner’s phase of virtuous character development, I also divide emulation into two types: pre-phronetic ‘habituated emulation’ and phronetically-informed ‘complete emulation’. In the naturalistic spirit of the thesis, I then refine and extend the main concepts pertaining to this philosophical argument by aligning them with insights from developmental moral psychology and neuroscience. The result: a philosophically discerning, psychologically realistic and developmentally adequate theory of emulation. Having expounded the moral philosophy and moral psychology of emulation, the thesis then takes a more applied turn into the professional ethics education of teachers. Here, I build a normative case for phronimoi teacher role models, i.e., experienced teachers as role models to more novice teachers, which I frame as a moral developmental solution to the threshold problem – the issue that many teachers do not meet the phronetic standard required to be role models to pupils. This then fuels an empirical case study on teachers who actually are moral role models to early carer teachers. The results of the study illuminate the salience of phronesis to the emulative process and motivate sustained interest in emulation qua role modelling as a method of moral virtue and phronesis development in teachers

Development of polymer derived ceramics for high-temperature applications

Metal-modified polymer derived ceramics (PDCs) are a new and promising area of research to obtain advanced high-temperature capable ceramics. Incorporating these modified PDCs as matrices in fibre reinforced ceramic matrix composites (FRCMCs) could offer a cost-effective approach to the design and development of thermostructural components for use in aggressive, high-temperature environments. Of these modified PDCs, aluminium-modified SiCN is a promising example that been shown to improve oxidative resistance in both wet and dry environments up 1400°C. However, a Si(Al)CN ceramic has yet to be explored for use in FRCMCs and is the focus of the research within this thesis. Si(Al)CN ceramic was successfully synthesised using a commercially available poly(silazane), Durazane1800, which was modified with aluminium isopropoxide; FT-IR and NMR analysis indicated that protonation occurred at the S-H and N-H bonds. The characterisation of the subsequent polymer-to-ceramic transformation with FT-IR showed the aluminium doping was retained during pyrolysis and that the resultant ceramic was amorphous in nature, as shown by XRD. EDX analysis of the Si(Al)CN ceramic also confirmed that the aluminium was homogenously distributed on an atomic scale. To manufacture FRCMCs, a novel PDC prepreg was developed using a biomaterial-based hydrogel with poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The manufacturing process was designed to overcome many of the complex processing challenges associated with oxygen poor preceramic polymers such as Durazane1800. Two key processing steps were identified and addressed; the first step focused to the removal of hydroxyl groups during consolidation of the green body to make the process compatible with moisture sensitive preceramic polymers. The other processing step related to the binder burnout where a tailored heating profile was developed using TGA/DSC to analyse the thermal degradation of the PVP/PEG hydrogel. Furthermore, the tack properties of the prepregs were quantified using ASTM standard 1876. It was shown that prepreg tack could be retained even after prolonged storage at laboratory room temperature (average of 20°C), 30°C and 40°C for 14 days due to the humectant characteristics of the polymers. The long-term oxidation of SiCf/SiCp/SiCN and SiCf/SiCp/Si(Al)CN CMCs were investigated in oxygen over the range 1300-1500°C for between 5-60 h where it was found that oxidation depended on both temperature and time. Measurements of oxide growth revealed that the oxidation reaction kinetics observed parabolic behaviour where oxygen diffusion though the oxide layer was the rate limiting step. The SiCf/SiCp/Si(Al)CNCMC showed better oxidation performance with a lower parabolic rate constant at all three oxidation temperatures and a higher activation energy than the SiCf/SiCp/SiCN CMC at 328.14 kJ mol-1 and 242.10 kJ mol-1 , respectively. It was determined that SiCf/SiCp/Si(Al)CN CMC was able to improve the oxidation resistance by being able to form a more structurally stable oxide in addition to the passivating effect with the inclusion of aluminium. Furthermore, the short-term ablative behaviour of Cf/SiCp/SiCN and Cf/SiCp/Si(Al)CN CMCs were investigated above 1900°C for 60 seconds. It was found that both CMCs performed reasonably well within the ablative environment with the Cf/SiCp/Si(Al)CN CMC having a slightly improved ablation resistance of around 5%

Microflora derived whey protein compared to dairy-derived whey protein on muscular adaptations to lower limb resistance training in healthy young adults

Background: Individuals and athletes alike require a higher habitual protein intake to support muscular adaptations in response to resistance training (RT). Many non-animal protein alternatives are typically associated with reduced anabolic potential, compared to animal derived protein sources. With the rising popularity of animal-free diets, researchers are faced with the challenge of investigating novel protein alternatives that are more sustainable. Microflora derived whey protein has a similar composition to traditional dairy, promising a lower carbon footprint and more efficient production process, relative to traditional dairy derived whey. Research to date has not yet revealed whether a novel microflora derived whey protein alternative can comparatively support muscular adaptations to RT. Aims: This study aimed to compare muscular adaptations following the ingestion of microflora derived non animal whey protein, against an animal derived whey protein. Methods: In a randomised double blinded control trial, 23 healthy young adults (23 ± 5 yr), were allocated to receive either microflora derived whey or a dairy whey supplement. Participants completed a high load (>60% 1RM) lower body focussed resistance training program, three times a week, for 8 weeks. Ultrasonography to evaluate muscle architecture, and muscle strength (isokinetic knee extension and 1RM strength for each exercise) were recorded at baseline, week 5, and week 8 post intervention. Measures of 1-RM and ultrasound were analysed using 2 way repeated measures ANOVA in SPSS (version 29, IBM SPSS, Armonk, NY USA). Mean peak torque of MVC measures across both visits were analysed using a paired sample T test to evaluate statistically significant differences between test and retest values. Results: The results show that 1RM and MVC increased after the 8-week lower body focussed resistance training intervention. There was a statistically significant increase in MVC from baseline (389 ± 132 Nm) in group A, and (464 ± 147 Nm) in group B compared to week 8 (397 ± 101 Nm) and (484 ± 165 Nm; P<0.01) in group A and B respectively. Overall, measures of MVC demonstrated a greater increase in group B than group A. There was no significant difference in measures of muscle architecture from baseline to week 8. Measures of pennation angle showed no significant difference in group A (17 ± 3°) and group B (18 ± 3°) at week 8. Fascicle length decreased in both group A (91 ± 18mm), and group B (86 ± 7mm). Muscle thickness remained constant from baseline to week 8 in group A (27 ± 4mm), and group B (28 ± 5mm). Conclusions: Amongst a healthy young adult population, ingestion of microflora derived, and standard animal-based whey protein comparatively support increases in muscular strength, facilitating muscular adaptation in response to lower body focussed RT. Overall, there is evidence of a significant time effect on strength in both groups, shown by increases in MVC and 1-RM output following the training protocol for 8 weeks compared to baseline. However, no significant difference in measures of muscle architecture, as a marker of muscle hypertrophy suggests that the extent of muscular hypertrophy achieved during the study remains to be determined

An exploratory study of global citizenship education in different curricula contexts within English secondary schools

The double-edged sword of globalisation has transformed spaces into transnational arenas that all students must negotiate daily (Nolan 2009; Waters and Brooks 2012). Equally, it has left many disenfranchised and exposed to inequality fuelling movements like Black Lives Matter and #MeToo in search of understanding, voice, and social change. Situated in this is global citizenship education (GCE). Dynamic discourse in the field and recent efforts to map those discussions offer an opportunity for researchers and educators to use GCE as a navigating tool for students at school in 2024 (Pashby et al. 2020; Stein 2015). Situated between the International Baccalaureate (IB) and the English context, this study explores interpretations and enactments of GCE, and the potential role curriculum plays within that. It aims to understand different manifestations of GCE across IB and A level, state and independent settings and navigate how GCE can be better integrated in all schools to address global crises, embrace diversity, and prepare students for an uncertain future. Framed within comparative international education, this project takes a small-scale case study approach. To understand GCE in England and offer actionable ideas, it states research must be grounded in such a comparative framework (Bray and Thomas 1995; Flyvbjerg 2001). The study uses four sites to act concurrently towards a single case in England (Day Ashley 2021; Yin 2009). The research works with a process-orientated approach proposed by Bartlett and Varvus (2017). It is an active process, beginning with lesson observations and adapting knowledge from those to later interviews and focus groups alongside document analysis. Rather than binding sites to look for pre-determined ideas of GCE, data collection lets the culture and context of those sites drive their own data in an active process of sense-making (Erickson 2011). As such, the case study – of GCE in England – becomes the phenomenon of study and each geographical site a constituent part. All four schools in the study exhibited a demand for and actions relating to many forms of GCE; both A level and IB settings were adapting their pedagogies, content, and co-curricular offerings to include different knowledges. This is a significant change in the area of global citizenship education. Those did, however, exist at different stages. A level settings were beginning to explore alternative perspectives but, simultaneously, remained grounded in narratives on charity and responsibility. IB schools though were moving beyond that to critiquing single-story approaches and embracing reciprocal service learning and equity in the classroom. Whilst arguably still in their early stages, this research highlights the importance of findings as one of very few studies done in UK but also covering both the state and independent sectors. Moreover, the overwhelming message was GCE beyond individualised endeavours – directly countering other academic findings (Lauder 2007; Resnik 2012; Weenink 2008). Indeed, it was A level schools that were more pre-occupied with attainment and GCE as a competency tool. The research offers four important academic contributions. First, the study aimed to answer earlier and ongoing calls for more empirical work in GCE particularly within England at 16 plus. Second, the research found GCE to be a complex web within all school settings, arguing the value in that complexity and calling for other research to sit in the nuance and complexity to develop narratives of schools that are representative of action on GCE. Third, within the complexities of GCE, all four school sites showed evidence of connections across different understandings of GCE that was both interesting and encouraging. Findings suggested that change was beginning to occur in the education world that reflects the rich discussion on GCE in the academic world. Finally, there was a clear connection from all findings on GCE, that self-reflection and reflexivity permeate many forms of GCE and could be a starting point for students and teachers as they embark on the global citizenship education journey. Moving forward, the research calls for further empirical research in countries like UK that connects dynamic discussions on the connections between types of global citizenship education found in the literature with exciting and equally dynamic activities in schools; enactments that are beginning to question dominant narratives, increasingly cover more voices and co-curricular endeavours that are moving from charity to partnership in an effort to engage global citizens in contemporary challenges facing the world